Refactor all ctor callsites of PathFragment to instead call a static 'create' method.

This paves the way for changing PathFragment to e.g. an abstract class with multiple subclasses. This way we can split out the windows-specific stuff into one of these concrete classes, making the code more readable and also saving memory (since the shallow heap size of the NonWindowsPathFragment subclass will hopefully be smaller than that of the current PathFragment).

This also lets us pursue gc churn optimizations. We can now do interning in PathFragment#create and can also get rid of unnecessary intermediate PathFragment allocations.

RELNOTES: None

PiperOrigin-RevId: 152145768

101 files changed, 946 insertions, 902 deletions

diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/ArtifactFactoryTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/ArtifactFactoryTest.java
index c0bec56609..40c0f94771 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/ArtifactFactoryTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/ArtifactFactoryTest.java
@@ -83,15 +83,15 @@ public class ArtifactFactoryTest {
     alienRoot = Root.asSourceRoot(scratch.dir("/client/workspace"));
     outRoot = Root.asDerivedRoot(execRoot, execRoot.getRelative("out-root/x/bin"));
 
-    fooPath = new PathFragment("foo");
+    fooPath = PathFragment.create("foo");
     fooPackage = PackageIdentifier.createInMainRepo(fooPath);
     fooRelative = fooPath.getRelative("foosource.txt");
 
-    barPath = new PathFragment("foo/bar");
+    barPath = PathFragment.create("foo/bar");
     barPackage = PackageIdentifier.createInMainRepo(barPath);
     barRelative = barPath.getRelative("barsource.txt");
 
-    alienPath = new PathFragment("external/alien");
+    alienPath = PathFragment.create("external/alien");
     alienPackage = PackageIdentifier.create("@alien", alienPath);
     alienRelative = alienPath.getRelative("alien.txt");
 
@@ -116,7 +116,7 @@ public class ArtifactFactoryTest {
   @Test
   public void testGetSourceArtifactUnnormalized() throws Exception {
     assertSame(artifactFactory.getSourceArtifact(fooRelative, clientRoot),
-               artifactFactory.getSourceArtifact(new PathFragment("foo/./foosource.txt"),
+               artifactFactory.getSourceArtifact(PathFragment.create("foo/./foosource.txt"),
                    clientRoot));
   }
 
@@ -156,11 +156,11 @@ public class ArtifactFactoryTest {
     // We need a package in the root directory to make every exec path (even one with up-level
     // references) be in a package.
     Map<PackageIdentifier, Root> packageRoots = ImmutableMap.of(
-        PackageIdentifier.createInMainRepo(new PathFragment("")), clientRoot);
+        PackageIdentifier.createInMainRepo(PathFragment.create("")), clientRoot);
     artifactFactory.setPackageRoots(packageRoots);
-    PathFragment outsideWorkspace = new PathFragment("../foo");
+    PathFragment outsideWorkspace = PathFragment.create("../foo");
     PathFragment insideWorkspace =
-        new PathFragment("../" + clientRoot.getPath().getBaseName() + "/foo");
+        PathFragment.create("../" + clientRoot.getPath().getBaseName() + "/foo");
     assertNull(artifactFactory.resolveSourceArtifact(outsideWorkspace, MAIN));
     assertNull("Up-level-containing paths that descend into the right workspace aren't allowed",
             artifactFactory.resolveSourceArtifact(insideWorkspace, MAIN));
@@ -186,7 +186,7 @@ public class ArtifactFactoryTest {
   public void testFindDerivedRoot() throws Exception {
     assertThat(artifactFactory.isDerivedArtifact(fooRelative)).isFalse();
     assertThat(artifactFactory.isDerivedArtifact(
-        new PathFragment("bazel-out/local-fastbuild/bin/foo"))).isTrue();
+        PathFragment.create("bazel-out/local-fastbuild/bin/foo"))).isTrue();
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -210,7 +210,7 @@ public class ArtifactFactoryTest {
 
   @Test
   public void testGetDerivedArtifact() throws Exception {
-    PathFragment toolPath = new PathFragment("_bin/tool");
+    PathFragment toolPath = PathFragment.create("_bin/tool");
     Artifact artifact = artifactFactory.getDerivedArtifact(toolPath, execRoot);
     assertEquals(toolPath, artifact.getExecPath());
     assertEquals(Root.asDerivedRoot(execRoot), artifact.getRoot());
@@ -221,7 +221,7 @@ public class ArtifactFactoryTest {
   @Test
   public void testGetDerivedArtifactFailsForAbsolutePath() throws Exception {
     try {
-      artifactFactory.getDerivedArtifact(new PathFragment("/_bin/b"), execRoot);
+      artifactFactory.getDerivedArtifact(PathFragment.create("/_bin/b"), execRoot);
       fail();
     } catch (IllegalArgumentException e) {
       // Expected exception
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/ArtifactTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/ArtifactTest.java
index 81b64b2b40..b7bb9d1ae8 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/ArtifactTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/ArtifactTest.java
@@ -66,8 +66,8 @@ public class ArtifactTest {
 
   @Test
   public void testEquivalenceRelation() throws Exception {
-    PathFragment aPath = new PathFragment("src/a");
-    PathFragment bPath = new PathFragment("src/b");
+    PathFragment aPath = PathFragment.create("src/a");
+    PathFragment bPath = PathFragment.create("src/b");
     assertEquals(new Artifact(aPath, rootDir),
                  new Artifact(aPath, rootDir));
     assertEquals(new Artifact(bPath, rootDir),
@@ -78,14 +78,14 @@ public class ArtifactTest {
 
   @Test
   public void testEmptyLabelIsNone() throws Exception {
-    Artifact artifact = new Artifact(new PathFragment("src/a"), rootDir);
+    Artifact artifact = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("src/a"), rootDir);
     assertThat(artifact.getOwnerLabel()).isNull();
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testComparison() throws Exception {
-    PathFragment aPath = new PathFragment("src/a");
-    PathFragment bPath = new PathFragment("src/b");
+    PathFragment aPath = PathFragment.create("src/a");
+    PathFragment bPath = PathFragment.create("src/b");
     Artifact aArtifact = new Artifact(aPath, rootDir);
     Artifact bArtifact = new Artifact(bPath, rootDir);
     assertEquals(-1, Artifact.EXEC_PATH_COMPARATOR.compare(aArtifact, bArtifact));
@@ -165,7 +165,7 @@ public class ArtifactTest {
     Artifact aHeader1 = new Artifact(scratch.file("/foo/bar1.h"), root);
     Artifact aHeader2 = new Artifact(scratch.file("/foo/bar2.h"), root);
     Artifact aHeader3 = new Artifact(scratch.file("/foo/bar3.h"), root);
-    Artifact middleman = new Artifact(new PathFragment("middleman"),
+    Artifact middleman = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("middleman"),
         Root.middlemanRoot(scratch.dir("/foo"), scratch.dir("/foo/out")));
     actionGraph.registerAction(new MiddlemanAction(ActionsTestUtil.NULL_ACTION_OWNER,
         ImmutableList.of(aHeader1, aHeader2, aHeader3), middleman, "desc",
@@ -198,10 +198,10 @@ public class ArtifactTest {
     Artifact.addExpandedExecPaths(getFooBarArtifacts(actionGraph, true), paths,
         ActionInputHelper.actionGraphArtifactExpander(actionGraph));
     assertThat(paths).containsExactly(
-        new PathFragment("bar1.h"),
-        new PathFragment("bar1.h"),
-        new PathFragment("bar2.h"),
-        new PathFragment("bar3.h"));
+        PathFragment.create("bar1.h"),
+        PathFragment.create("bar1.h"),
+        PathFragment.create("bar2.h"),
+        PathFragment.create("bar3.h"));
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -248,10 +248,10 @@ public class ArtifactTest {
     Artifact.addExpandedExecPaths(getFooBarArtifacts(actionGraph, true), paths,
         ActionInputHelper.actionGraphArtifactExpander(actionGraph));
     assertThat(paths).containsExactly(
-        new PathFragment("bar1.h"),
-        new PathFragment("bar1.h"),
-        new PathFragment("bar2.h"),
-        new PathFragment("bar3.h"));
+        PathFragment.create("bar1.h"),
+        PathFragment.create("bar1.h"),
+        PathFragment.create("bar2.h"),
+        PathFragment.create("bar3.h"));
   }
 
   // TODO consider tests for the future
@@ -285,7 +285,7 @@ public class ArtifactTest {
   @Test
   public void testToDetailString() throws Exception {
     Artifact a = new Artifact(scratch.file("/a/b/c"), Root.asDerivedRoot(scratch.dir("/a/b")),
-        new PathFragment("b/c"));
+        PathFragment.create("b/c"));
     assertEquals("[[/a]b]c", a.toDetailString());
   }
 
@@ -293,7 +293,7 @@ public class ArtifactTest {
   public void testWeirdArtifact() throws Exception {
     try {
       new Artifact(scratch.file("/a/b/c"), Root.asDerivedRoot(scratch.dir("/a")),
-          new PathFragment("c"));
+          PathFragment.create("c"));
       fail();
     } catch (IllegalArgumentException e) {
       assertThat(e).hasMessage(
@@ -312,7 +312,7 @@ public class ArtifactTest {
   public void testSerializeToStringWithExecPath() throws Exception {
     Path path = scratch.file("/aaa/bbb/ccc");
     Root root = Root.asDerivedRoot(scratch.dir("/aaa/bbb"));
-    PathFragment execPath = new PathFragment("bbb/ccc");
+    PathFragment execPath = PathFragment.create("bbb/ccc");
 
     assertEquals("bbb/ccc /3", new Artifact(path, root, execPath).serializeToString());
   }
@@ -321,7 +321,7 @@ public class ArtifactTest {
   public void testSerializeToStringWithOwner() throws Exception {
     assertEquals("b/c /3 //foo:bar",
         new Artifact(scratch.file("/aa/b/c"), Root.asDerivedRoot(scratch.dir("/aa")),
-            new PathFragment("b/c"),
+            PathFragment.create("b/c"),
             new LabelArtifactOwner(Label.parseAbsoluteUnchecked("//foo:bar"))).serializeToString());
   }
 
@@ -353,7 +353,7 @@ public class ArtifactTest {
   public void testIsSourceArtifact() throws Exception {
     assertThat(
         new Artifact(scratch.file("/src/foo.cc"), Root.asSourceRoot(scratch.dir("/")),
-            new PathFragment("src/foo.cc"))
+            PathFragment.create("src/foo.cc"))
             .isSourceArtifact())
         .isTrue();
     assertThat(
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/BaseSpawnTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/BaseSpawnTest.java
index 7f339dcb56..0c1b0f5fc1 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/BaseSpawnTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/BaseSpawnTest.java
@@ -44,7 +44,7 @@ public class BaseSpawnTest {
     final String runfilesDir = "runfilesdir";
     BaseSpawn underTest = minimalBaseSpawn(
         baseEnviron,
-        new RunfilesSupplierImpl(new PathFragment(runfilesDir), Runfiles.EMPTY));
+        new RunfilesSupplierImpl(PathFragment.create(runfilesDir), Runfiles.EMPTY));
 
     Map<String, String> expected = ImmutableMap.<String, String>builder()
         .putAll(baseEnviron)
@@ -60,8 +60,8 @@ public class BaseSpawnTest {
     Map<String, String> baseEnviron = ImmutableMap.of("HELLO", "world");
     BaseSpawn underTest = minimalBaseSpawn(baseEnviron,
         new CompositeRunfilesSupplier(
-            new RunfilesSupplierImpl(new PathFragment("rfdir1"), Runfiles.EMPTY),
-            new RunfilesSupplierImpl(new PathFragment("rfdir2"), Runfiles.EMPTY)));
+            new RunfilesSupplierImpl(PathFragment.create("rfdir1"), Runfiles.EMPTY),
+            new RunfilesSupplierImpl(PathFragment.create("rfdir2"), Runfiles.EMPTY)));
 
     assertThat(underTest.getEnvironment()).isEqualTo(baseEnviron);
   }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/CompositeRunfilesSupplierTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/CompositeRunfilesSupplierTest.java
index 507fc8bcac..559deb12ef 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/CompositeRunfilesSupplierTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/CompositeRunfilesSupplierTest.java
@@ -61,9 +61,9 @@ public class CompositeRunfilesSupplierTest {
 
   @Test
   public void testGetRunfilesDirsReturnsCombinedPaths() {
-    PathFragment first = new PathFragment("first");
-    PathFragment second = new PathFragment("second");
-    PathFragment shared = new PathFragment("shared");
+    PathFragment first = PathFragment.create("first");
+    PathFragment second = PathFragment.create("second");
+    PathFragment shared = PathFragment.create("shared");
 
     when(mockFirst.getRunfilesDirs()).thenReturn(ImmutableSet.of(first, shared));
     when(mockSecond.getRunfilesDirs()).thenReturn(ImmutableSet.of(second, shared));
@@ -75,13 +75,13 @@ public class CompositeRunfilesSupplierTest {
 
   @Test
   public void testGetMappingsReturnsMappingsWithFirstPrecedenceOverSecond() throws IOException {
-    PathFragment first = new PathFragment("first");
+    PathFragment first = PathFragment.create("first");
     Map<PathFragment, Artifact> firstMappings = mkMappings(rootDir, "first1", "first2");
 
-    PathFragment second = new PathFragment("second");
+    PathFragment second = PathFragment.create("second");
     Map<PathFragment, Artifact> secondMappings = mkMappings(rootDir, "second1", "second2");
 
-    PathFragment shared = new PathFragment("shared");
+    PathFragment shared = PathFragment.create("shared");
     Map<PathFragment, Artifact> firstSharedMappings = mkMappings(rootDir, "shared1", "shared2");
     Map<PathFragment, Artifact> secondSharedMappings = mkMappings(rootDir, "lost1", "lost2");
 
@@ -103,13 +103,13 @@ public class CompositeRunfilesSupplierTest {
   @Test
   public void testGetMappingsViaListConstructorReturnsMappingsWithFirstPrecedenceOverSecond()
       throws IOException {
-    PathFragment first = new PathFragment("first");
+    PathFragment first = PathFragment.create("first");
     Map<PathFragment, Artifact> firstMappings = mkMappings(rootDir, "first1", "first2");
 
-    PathFragment second = new PathFragment("second");
+    PathFragment second = PathFragment.create("second");
     Map<PathFragment, Artifact> secondMappings = mkMappings(rootDir, "second1", "second2");
 
-    PathFragment shared = new PathFragment("shared");
+    PathFragment shared = PathFragment.create("shared");
     Map<PathFragment, Artifact> firstSharedMappings = mkMappings(rootDir, "shared1", "shared2");
     Map<PathFragment, Artifact> secondSharedMappings = mkMappings(rootDir, "lost1", "lost2");
 
@@ -132,13 +132,13 @@ public class CompositeRunfilesSupplierTest {
   private static Map<PathFragment, Artifact> mkMappings(Root rootDir, String... paths) {
     ImmutableMap.Builder<PathFragment, Artifact> builder = ImmutableMap.builder();
     for (String path : paths) {
-      builder.put(new PathFragment(path), mkArtifact(rootDir, path));
+      builder.put(PathFragment.create(path), mkArtifact(rootDir, path));
     }
     return builder.build();
   }
 
   private static Artifact mkArtifact(Root rootDir, String path) {
-    return new Artifact(new PathFragment(path), rootDir);
+    return new Artifact(PathFragment.create(path), rootDir);
   }
 
   private static List<Artifact> mkArtifacts(Root rootDir, String... paths) {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/CustomCommandLineTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/CustomCommandLineTest.java
index 21b4b30f45..c0a808e921 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/CustomCommandLineTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/CustomCommandLineTest.java
@@ -273,7 +273,7 @@ public class CustomCommandLineTest {
   }
 
   private Artifact createTreeArtifact(String rootRelativePath) {
-    PathFragment relpath = new PathFragment(rootRelativePath);
+    PathFragment relpath = PathFragment.create(rootRelativePath);
     return new SpecialArtifact(
         rootDir.getPath().getRelative(relpath),
         rootDir,
@@ -286,6 +286,6 @@ public class CustomCommandLineTest {
       Artifact inputTreeArtifact, String parentRelativePath) {
     return ActionInputHelper.treeFileArtifact(
         inputTreeArtifact,
-        new PathFragment(parentRelativePath));
+        PathFragment.create(parentRelativePath));
   }
 }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/RootTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/RootTest.java
index 26f0ef0c99..92b0567699 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/RootTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/RootTest.java
@@ -62,7 +62,7 @@ public class RootTest {
     Path rootDir = scratch.dir("/exec/root");
     Root root = Root.asDerivedRoot(execRoot, rootDir);
     assertFalse(root.isSourceRoot());
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment("root"), root.getExecPath());
+    assertEquals(PathFragment.create("root"), root.getExecPath());
     assertEquals(rootDir, root.getPath());
     assertEquals("/exec/root[derived]", root.toString());
   }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/cache/CompactPersistentActionCacheTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/cache/CompactPersistentActionCacheTest.java
index 479e152c17..b731f6f69d 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/cache/CompactPersistentActionCacheTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/cache/CompactPersistentActionCacheTest.java
@@ -167,7 +167,7 @@ public class CompactPersistentActionCacheTest {
     ActionCache.Entry entry =
         new ActionCache.Entry("actionKey", ImmutableMap.<String, String>of(), false);
     entry.toString();
-    entry.addFile(new PathFragment("foo/bar"), Metadata.CONSTANT_METADATA);
+    entry.addFile(PathFragment.create("foo/bar"), Metadata.CONSTANT_METADATA);
     entry.toString();
     entry.getFileDigest();
     entry.toString();
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/util/ActionsTestUtil.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/util/ActionsTestUtil.java
index 24d321c182..cbf98e12ea 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/util/ActionsTestUtil.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/util/ActionsTestUtil.java
@@ -192,7 +192,7 @@ public final class ActionsTestUtil {
   }
 
   public static final Artifact DUMMY_ARTIFACT = new Artifact(
-      new PathFragment("dummy"),
+      PathFragment.create("dummy"),
       Root.asSourceRoot(new InMemoryFileSystem().getRootDirectory()));
 
   public static final ActionOwner NULL_ACTION_OWNER =
@@ -549,7 +549,7 @@ public final class ActionsTestUtil {
       Artifact inputTreeArtifact, Artifact outputTreeArtifact) {
     return new SpawnActionTemplate.Builder(inputTreeArtifact, outputTreeArtifact)
         .setCommandLineTemplate(CustomCommandLine.builder().build())
-        .setExecutable(new PathFragment("bin/executable"))
+        .setExecutable(PathFragment.create("bin/executable"))
         .setOutputPathMapper(new OutputPathMapper() {
           @Override
           public PathFragment parentRelativeOutputPath(TreeFileArtifact inputTreeFileArtifact) {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/BuildViewTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/BuildViewTest.java
index 3bf92ec39d..106ccd119c 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/BuildViewTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/BuildViewTest.java
@@ -162,7 +162,7 @@ public class BuildViewTest extends BuildViewTestBase {
         outputArtifact.getRoot());
     assertEquals(outputCT.getConfiguration().getBinFragment().getRelative("pkg/a.out"),
         outputArtifact.getExecPath());
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment("pkg/a.out"), outputArtifact.getRootRelativePath());
+    assertEquals(PathFragment.create("pkg/a.out"), outputArtifact.getRootRelativePath());
 
     Action action = getGeneratingAction(outputArtifact);
     assertSame(FailAction.class, action.getClass());
@@ -775,9 +775,9 @@ public class BuildViewTest extends BuildViewTestBase {
     Path cycles2BuildFilePath = scratch.file("cycles2/BUILD",
         "sh_library(name = 'cycles2', srcs = glob(['*.sh']))");
     cycles1BuildFilePath.getParentDirectory().getRelative("cycles1.sh").createSymbolicLink(
-        new PathFragment("cycles1.sh"));
+        PathFragment.create("cycles1.sh"));
     cycles2BuildFilePath.getParentDirectory().getRelative("cycles2.sh").createSymbolicLink(
-        new PathFragment("cycles2.sh"));
+        PathFragment.create("cycles2.sh"));
     reporter.removeHandler(failFastHandler);
     EventBus eventBus = new EventBus();
     LoadingFailureRecorder recorder = new LoadingFailureRecorder();
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/RunfilesSupplierImplTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/RunfilesSupplierImplTest.java
index 0234699c28..e54ddc3e25 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/RunfilesSupplierImplTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/RunfilesSupplierImplTest.java
@@ -52,7 +52,7 @@ public class RunfilesSupplierImplTest {
     List<Artifact> artifacts = mkArtifacts(rootDir, "thing1", "thing2");
 
     RunfilesSupplierImpl underTest =
-        new RunfilesSupplierImpl(new PathFragment("notimportant"), mkRunfiles(artifacts));
+        new RunfilesSupplierImpl(PathFragment.create("notimportant"), mkRunfiles(artifacts));
 
     assertThat(underTest.getArtifacts()).containsExactlyElementsIn(artifacts);
   }
@@ -60,11 +60,11 @@ public class RunfilesSupplierImplTest {
   @Test
   public void testGetArtifactsFilterMiddlemen() {
     List<Artifact> artifacts = mkArtifacts(rootDir, "thing1", "thing2");
-    Artifact middleman = new Artifact(new PathFragment("middleman"), middlemanRoot);
+    Artifact middleman = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("middleman"), middlemanRoot);
     Runfiles runfiles = mkRunfiles(Iterables.concat(artifacts, ImmutableList.of(middleman)));
 
     RunfilesSupplier underTest =
-        new RunfilesSupplierImpl(new PathFragment("notimportant"), runfiles);
+        new RunfilesSupplierImpl(PathFragment.create("notimportant"), runfiles);
 
     assertThat(underTest.getArtifacts()).containsExactlyElementsIn(artifacts);
   }
@@ -72,15 +72,15 @@ public class RunfilesSupplierImplTest {
   @Test
   public void testGetManifestsWhenNone() {
     RunfilesSupplier underTest =
-        new RunfilesSupplierImpl(new PathFragment("ignored"), Runfiles.EMPTY, null);
+        new RunfilesSupplierImpl(PathFragment.create("ignored"), Runfiles.EMPTY, null);
     assertThat(underTest.getManifests()).isEmpty();
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testGetManifestsWhenSupplied() {
-    Artifact manifest = new Artifact(new PathFragment("manifest"), rootDir);
+    Artifact manifest = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("manifest"), rootDir);
     RunfilesSupplier underTest =
-        new RunfilesSupplierImpl(new PathFragment("ignored"), Runfiles.EMPTY, manifest);
+        new RunfilesSupplierImpl(PathFragment.create("ignored"), Runfiles.EMPTY, manifest);
     assertThat(underTest.getManifests()).containsExactly(manifest);
   }
 
@@ -91,7 +91,7 @@ public class RunfilesSupplierImplTest {
   private static List<Artifact> mkArtifacts(Root rootDir, String... paths) {
     ImmutableList.Builder<Artifact> builder = ImmutableList.builder();
     for (String path : paths) {
-      builder.add(new Artifact(new PathFragment(path), rootDir));
+      builder.add(new Artifact(PathFragment.create(path), rootDir));
     }
     return builder.build();
   }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/RunfilesTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/RunfilesTest.java
index f6d1509bb1..41f543642b 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/RunfilesTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/RunfilesTest.java
@@ -50,11 +50,11 @@ public class RunfilesTest extends FoundationTestCase {
   @Test
   public void testFilterListForObscuringSymlinksCatchesBadObscurer() throws Exception {
     Map<PathFragment, Artifact> obscuringMap = new HashMap<>();
-    PathFragment pathA = new PathFragment("a");
+    PathFragment pathA = PathFragment.create("a");
     Root root = Root.asSourceRoot(scratch.resolve("/workspace"));
-    Artifact artifactA = new Artifact(new PathFragment("a"), root);
+    Artifact artifactA = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("a"), root);
     obscuringMap.put(pathA, artifactA);
-    obscuringMap.put(new PathFragment("a/b"), new Artifact(new PathFragment("c/b"),
+    obscuringMap.put(PathFragment.create("a/b"), new Artifact(PathFragment.create("c/b"),
         root));
     assertThat(Runfiles.filterListForObscuringSymlinks(reporter, null, obscuringMap).entrySet())
         .containsExactly(Maps.immutableEntry(pathA, artifactA)).inOrder();
@@ -64,12 +64,12 @@ public class RunfilesTest extends FoundationTestCase {
   @Test
   public void testFilterListForObscuringSymlinksCatchesBadGrandParentObscurer() throws Exception {
     Map<PathFragment, Artifact> obscuringMap = new HashMap<>();
-    PathFragment pathA = new PathFragment("a");
+    PathFragment pathA = PathFragment.create("a");
     Root root = Root.asSourceRoot(scratch.resolve("/workspace"));
-    Artifact artifactA = new Artifact(new PathFragment("a"),
+    Artifact artifactA = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("a"),
                                           root);
     obscuringMap.put(pathA, artifactA);
-    obscuringMap.put(new PathFragment("a/b/c"), new Artifact(new PathFragment("b/c"),
+    obscuringMap.put(PathFragment.create("a/b/c"), new Artifact(PathFragment.create("b/c"),
                                                          root));
     assertThat(Runfiles.filterListForObscuringSymlinks(reporter, null, obscuringMap).entrySet())
         .containsExactly(Maps.immutableEntry(pathA, artifactA)).inOrder();
@@ -79,12 +79,12 @@ public class RunfilesTest extends FoundationTestCase {
   @Test
   public void testFilterListForObscuringSymlinksCatchesBadObscurerNoListener() throws Exception {
     Map<PathFragment, Artifact> obscuringMap = new HashMap<>();
-    PathFragment pathA = new PathFragment("a");
+    PathFragment pathA = PathFragment.create("a");
     Root root = Root.asSourceRoot(scratch.resolve("/workspace"));
-    Artifact artifactA = new Artifact(new PathFragment("a"),
+    Artifact artifactA = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("a"),
                                           root);
     obscuringMap.put(pathA, artifactA);
-    obscuringMap.put(new PathFragment("a/b"), new Artifact(new PathFragment("c/b"),
+    obscuringMap.put(PathFragment.create("a/b"), new Artifact(PathFragment.create("c/b"),
         root));
     assertThat(Runfiles.filterListForObscuringSymlinks(null, null, obscuringMap).entrySet())
         .containsExactly(Maps.immutableEntry(pathA, artifactA)).inOrder();
@@ -93,12 +93,12 @@ public class RunfilesTest extends FoundationTestCase {
   @Test
   public void testFilterListForObscuringSymlinksIgnoresOkObscurer() throws Exception {
     Map<PathFragment, Artifact> obscuringMap = new HashMap<>();
-    PathFragment pathA = new PathFragment("a");
+    PathFragment pathA = PathFragment.create("a");
     Root root = Root.asSourceRoot(scratch.resolve("/workspace"));
-    Artifact artifactA = new Artifact(new PathFragment("a"),
+    Artifact artifactA = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("a"),
                                           root);
     obscuringMap.put(pathA, artifactA);
-    obscuringMap.put(new PathFragment("a/b"), new Artifact(new PathFragment("a/b"),
+    obscuringMap.put(PathFragment.create("a/b"), new Artifact(PathFragment.create("a/b"),
                                                          root));
 
     assertThat(Runfiles.filterListForObscuringSymlinks(reporter, null, obscuringMap).entrySet())
@@ -109,13 +109,13 @@ public class RunfilesTest extends FoundationTestCase {
   @Test
   public void testFilterListForObscuringSymlinksNoObscurers() throws Exception {
     Map<PathFragment, Artifact> obscuringMap = new HashMap<>();
-    PathFragment pathA = new PathFragment("a");
+    PathFragment pathA = PathFragment.create("a");
     Root root = Root.asSourceRoot(scratch.resolve("/workspace"));
-    Artifact artifactA = new Artifact(new PathFragment("a"),
+    Artifact artifactA = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("a"),
                                           root);
     obscuringMap.put(pathA, artifactA);
-    PathFragment pathBC = new PathFragment("b/c");
-    Artifact artifactBC = new Artifact(new PathFragment("a/b"),
+    PathFragment pathBC = PathFragment.create("b/c");
+    Artifact artifactBC = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("a/b"),
                                        root);
     obscuringMap.put(pathBC, artifactBC);
     assertThat(Runfiles.filterListForObscuringSymlinks(reporter, null, obscuringMap)
@@ -139,9 +139,9 @@ public class RunfilesTest extends FoundationTestCase {
   @Test
   public void testPutCatchesConflict() {
     Root root = Root.asSourceRoot(scratch.resolve("/workspace"));
-    PathFragment pathA = new PathFragment("a");
-    Artifact artifactB = new Artifact(new PathFragment("b"), root);
-    Artifact artifactC = new Artifact(new PathFragment("c"), root);
+    PathFragment pathA = PathFragment.create("a");
+    Artifact artifactB = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("b"), root);
+    Artifact artifactC = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("c"), root);
     Map<PathFragment, Artifact> map = new LinkedHashMap<>();
 
     Runfiles.ConflictChecker checker =
@@ -156,9 +156,9 @@ public class RunfilesTest extends FoundationTestCase {
   @Test
   public void testPutReportsError() {
     Root root = Root.asSourceRoot(scratch.resolve("/workspace"));
-    PathFragment pathA = new PathFragment("a");
-    Artifact artifactB = new Artifact(new PathFragment("b"), root);
-    Artifact artifactC = new Artifact(new PathFragment("c"), root);
+    PathFragment pathA = PathFragment.create("a");
+    Artifact artifactB = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("b"), root);
+    Artifact artifactC = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("c"), root);
     Map<PathFragment, Artifact> map = new LinkedHashMap<>();
 
     // Same as above but with ERROR not WARNING
@@ -174,8 +174,8 @@ public class RunfilesTest extends FoundationTestCase {
   @Test
   public void testPutCatchesConflictBetweenNullAndNotNull() {
     Root root = Root.asSourceRoot(scratch.resolve("/workspace"));
-    PathFragment pathA = new PathFragment("a");
-    Artifact artifactB = new Artifact(new PathFragment("b"), root);
+    PathFragment pathA = PathFragment.create("a");
+    Artifact artifactB = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("b"), root);
     Map<PathFragment, Artifact> map = new LinkedHashMap<>();
 
     Runfiles.ConflictChecker checker =
@@ -189,8 +189,8 @@ public class RunfilesTest extends FoundationTestCase {
   @Test
   public void testPutCatchesConflictBetweenNotNullAndNull() {
     Root root = Root.asSourceRoot(scratch.resolve("/workspace"));
-    PathFragment pathA = new PathFragment("a");
-    Artifact artifactB = new Artifact(new PathFragment("b"), root);
+    PathFragment pathA = PathFragment.create("a");
+    Artifact artifactB = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("b"), root);
     Map<PathFragment, Artifact> map = new LinkedHashMap<>();
 
     // Same as above but opposite order
@@ -205,9 +205,9 @@ public class RunfilesTest extends FoundationTestCase {
   @Test
   public void testPutIgnoresConflict() {
     Root root = Root.asSourceRoot(scratch.resolve("/workspace"));
-    PathFragment pathA = new PathFragment("a");
-    Artifact artifactB = new Artifact(new PathFragment("b"), root);
-    Artifact artifactC = new Artifact(new PathFragment("c"), root);
+    PathFragment pathA = PathFragment.create("a");
+    Artifact artifactB = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("b"), root);
+    Artifact artifactC = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("c"), root);
     Map<PathFragment, Artifact> map = new LinkedHashMap<>();
 
     Runfiles.ConflictChecker checker =
@@ -221,9 +221,9 @@ public class RunfilesTest extends FoundationTestCase {
   @Test
   public void testPutIgnoresConflictNoListener() {
     Root root = Root.asSourceRoot(scratch.resolve("/workspace"));
-    PathFragment pathA = new PathFragment("a");
-    Artifact artifactB = new Artifact(new PathFragment("b"), root);
-    Artifact artifactC = new Artifact(new PathFragment("c"), root);
+    PathFragment pathA = PathFragment.create("a");
+    Artifact artifactB = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("b"), root);
+    Artifact artifactC = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("c"), root);
     Map<PathFragment, Artifact> map = new LinkedHashMap<>();
 
     Runfiles.ConflictChecker checker =
@@ -237,9 +237,9 @@ public class RunfilesTest extends FoundationTestCase {
   @Test
   public void testPutIgnoresSameArtifact() {
     Root root = Root.asSourceRoot(scratch.resolve("/workspace"));
-    PathFragment pathA = new PathFragment("a");
-    Artifact artifactB = new Artifact(new PathFragment("b"), root);
-    Artifact artifactB2 = new Artifact(new PathFragment("b"), root);
+    PathFragment pathA = PathFragment.create("a");
+    Artifact artifactB = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("b"), root);
+    Artifact artifactB2 = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("b"), root);
     assertEquals(artifactB, artifactB2);
     Map<PathFragment, Artifact> map = new LinkedHashMap<>();
 
@@ -253,7 +253,7 @@ public class RunfilesTest extends FoundationTestCase {
 
   @Test
   public void testPutIgnoresNullAndNull() {
-    PathFragment pathA = new PathFragment("a");
+    PathFragment pathA = PathFragment.create("a");
     Map<PathFragment, Artifact> map = new LinkedHashMap<>();
 
     Runfiles.ConflictChecker checker =
@@ -268,11 +268,11 @@ public class RunfilesTest extends FoundationTestCase {
   @Test
   public void testPutNoConflicts() {
     Root root = Root.asSourceRoot(scratch.resolve("/workspace"));
-    PathFragment pathA = new PathFragment("a");
-    PathFragment pathB = new PathFragment("b");
-    PathFragment pathC = new PathFragment("c");
-    Artifact artifactA = new Artifact(new PathFragment("a"), root);
-    Artifact artifactB = new Artifact(new PathFragment("b"), root);
+    PathFragment pathA = PathFragment.create("a");
+    PathFragment pathB = PathFragment.create("b");
+    PathFragment pathC = PathFragment.create("c");
+    Artifact artifactA = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("a"), root);
+    Artifact artifactB = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("b"), root);
     Map<PathFragment, Artifact> map = new LinkedHashMap<>();
 
     Runfiles.ConflictChecker checker =
@@ -322,8 +322,8 @@ public class RunfilesTest extends FoundationTestCase {
   @Test
   public void testLegacyRunfilesStructure() {
     Root root = Root.asSourceRoot(scratch.resolve("/workspace"));
-    PathFragment workspaceName = new PathFragment("wsname");
-    PathFragment pathB = new PathFragment("external/repo/b");
+    PathFragment workspaceName = PathFragment.create("wsname");
+    PathFragment pathB = PathFragment.create("external/repo/b");
     Artifact artifactB = new Artifact(pathB, root);
 
     Runfiles.ManifestBuilder builder = new Runfiles.ManifestBuilder(workspaceName, true);
@@ -336,15 +336,15 @@ public class RunfilesTest extends FoundationTestCase {
 
     assertThat(builder.build().entrySet()).containsExactly(
         Maps.immutableEntry(workspaceName.getRelative(pathB), artifactB),
-        Maps.immutableEntry(new PathFragment("repo/b"), artifactB));
+        Maps.immutableEntry(PathFragment.create("repo/b"), artifactB));
     assertNoEvents();
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testRunfileAdded() {
     Root root = Root.asSourceRoot(scratch.resolve("/workspace"));
-    PathFragment workspaceName = new PathFragment("wsname");
-    PathFragment pathB = new PathFragment("external/repo/b");
+    PathFragment workspaceName = PathFragment.create("wsname");
+    PathFragment pathB = PathFragment.create("external/repo/b");
     Artifact artifactB = new Artifact(pathB, root);
 
     Runfiles.ManifestBuilder builder = new Runfiles.ManifestBuilder(workspaceName, false);
@@ -358,7 +358,7 @@ public class RunfilesTest extends FoundationTestCase {
 
     assertThat(builder.build().entrySet()).containsExactly(
         Maps.immutableEntry(workspaceName.getRelative(".runfile"), null),
-        Maps.immutableEntry(new PathFragment("repo/b"), artifactB));
+        Maps.immutableEntry(PathFragment.create("repo/b"), artifactB));
     assertNoEvents();
   }
 
@@ -366,7 +366,7 @@ public class RunfilesTest extends FoundationTestCase {
   @Test
   public void testConflictWithExternal() {
     Root root = Root.asSourceRoot(scratch.resolve("/workspace"));
-    PathFragment pathB = new PathFragment("repo/b");
+    PathFragment pathB = PathFragment.create("repo/b");
     PathFragment externalPathB = Label.EXTERNAL_PACKAGE_NAME.getRelative(pathB);
     Artifact artifactB = new Artifact(pathB, root);
     Artifact artifactExternalB = new Artifact(externalPathB, root);
@@ -383,17 +383,17 @@ public class RunfilesTest extends FoundationTestCase {
     builder.addUnderWorkspace(inputManifest, checker);
 
     assertThat(builder.build().entrySet()).containsExactly(
-        Maps.immutableEntry(new PathFragment("repo/b"), artifactExternalB));
+        Maps.immutableEntry(PathFragment.create("repo/b"), artifactExternalB));
     checkConflictWarning();
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testMergeWithSymlinks() {
     Root root = Root.asSourceRoot(scratch.resolve("/workspace"));
-    Artifact artifactA = new Artifact(new PathFragment("a/target"), root);
-    Artifact artifactB = new Artifact(new PathFragment("b/target"), root);
-    PathFragment sympathA = new PathFragment("a/symlink");
-    PathFragment sympathB = new PathFragment("b/symlink");
+    Artifact artifactA = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("a/target"), root);
+    Artifact artifactB = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("b/target"), root);
+    PathFragment sympathA = PathFragment.create("a/symlink");
+    PathFragment sympathB = PathFragment.create("b/symlink");
     Runfiles runfilesA = new Runfiles.Builder("TESTING")
         .addSymlink(sympathA, artifactA)
         .build();
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/UtilTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/UtilTest.java
index 1bc67df998..9024942379 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/UtilTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/UtilTest.java
@@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ public class UtilTest {
 
   @Test
   public void testContainsHyphen() throws Exception {
-    assertTrue(Util.containsHyphen(new PathFragment("foo/bar/with-hyphen")));
-    assertFalse(Util.containsHyphen(new PathFragment("foo/bar/no/hyphen")));
+    assertTrue(Util.containsHyphen(PathFragment.create("foo/bar/with-hyphen")));
+    assertFalse(Util.containsHyphen(PathFragment.create("foo/bar/no/hyphen")));
   }
 }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/CustomCommandLineTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/CustomCommandLineTest.java
index f065df9508..fb28f70d6e 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/CustomCommandLineTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/CustomCommandLineTest.java
@@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ public class CustomCommandLineTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
     CustomCommandLine commandLine = new CustomCommandLine.Builder()
         .add("foo")
         .addBeforeEachPath(
-            "-I", ImmutableList.of(new PathFragment("/path1"), new PathFragment("/path2")))
+            "-I", ImmutableList.of(PathFragment.create("/path1"), PathFragment.create("/path2")))
         .add("bar")
         .addBeforeEachPath("-I", ImmutableList.<PathFragment>of())
         .add("baz")
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/ParamFileWriteActionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/ParamFileWriteActionTest.java
index d35f103900..dbf57aedb8 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/ParamFileWriteActionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/ParamFileWriteActionTest.java
@@ -102,7 +102,7 @@ public class ParamFileWriteActionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
   }
 
   private Artifact createTreeArtifact(String rootRelativePath) {
-    PathFragment relpath = new PathFragment(rootRelativePath);
+    PathFragment relpath = PathFragment.create(rootRelativePath);
     return new SpecialArtifact(
         rootDir.getPath().getRelative(relpath),
         rootDir,
@@ -115,7 +115,7 @@ public class ParamFileWriteActionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
       Artifact inputTreeArtifact, String parentRelativePath) {
     return ActionInputHelper.treeFileArtifact(
         inputTreeArtifact,
-        new PathFragment(parentRelativePath));
+        PathFragment.create(parentRelativePath));
   }
 
   private ParameterFileWriteAction createParameterFileWriteAction(
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/PopulateTreeArtifactActionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/PopulateTreeArtifactActionTest.java
index a221496dab..19261f2b52 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/PopulateTreeArtifactActionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/PopulateTreeArtifactActionTest.java
@@ -325,7 +325,7 @@ public class PopulateTreeArtifactActionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
   }
 
   private Artifact createTreeArtifact(String rootRelativePath) {
-    PathFragment relpath = new PathFragment(rootRelativePath);
+    PathFragment relpath = PathFragment.create(rootRelativePath);
     return new SpecialArtifact(
         root.getPath().getRelative(relpath),
         root,
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/SpawnActionTemplateTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/SpawnActionTemplateTest.java
index 5d45da697a..09c6b0d701 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/SpawnActionTemplateTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/SpawnActionTemplateTest.java
@@ -92,7 +92,7 @@ public class SpawnActionTemplateTest {
     Artifact outputTreeArtifact = createOutputTreeArtifact();
     SpawnActionTemplate.Builder builder = builder(inputTreeArtifact, outputTreeArtifact)
         .setExecutionInfo(ImmutableMap.<String, String>of("local", ""))
-        .setExecutable(new PathFragment("/bin/cp"))
+        .setExecutable(PathFragment.create("/bin/cp"))
         .setCommandLineTemplate(
             createSimpleCommandLineTemplate(inputTreeArtifact, outputTreeArtifact))
         .setMnemonics("ActionTemplate", "ExpandedAction");
@@ -127,7 +127,7 @@ public class SpawnActionTemplateTest {
     SpawnActionTemplate.Builder builder = builder(inputTreeArtifact, outputTreeArtifact)
         .setExecutionInfo(ImmutableMap.<String, String>of("local", ""))
         .setOutputPathMapper(IDENTITY_MAPPER)
-        .setExecutable(new PathFragment("/bin/cp"))
+        .setExecutable(PathFragment.create("/bin/cp"))
         .setMnemonics("ActionTemplate", "ExpandedAction");
 
     try {
@@ -155,10 +155,10 @@ public class SpawnActionTemplateTest {
       String baseName = String.format("child%d", i);
       assertThat(expandedActions.get(i).getInputs()).containsExactly(
           ActionInputHelper.treeFileArtifact(
-              inputTreeArtifact, new PathFragment("children/" + baseName)));
+              inputTreeArtifact, PathFragment.create("children/" + baseName)));
       assertThat(expandedActions.get(i).getOutputs()).containsExactly(
           ActionInputHelper.treeFileArtifact(
-              outputTreeArtifact, new PathFragment("children/" + baseName)));
+              outputTreeArtifact, PathFragment.create("children/" + baseName)));
     }
   }
 
@@ -247,14 +247,14 @@ public class SpawnActionTemplateTest {
         createInputTreeFileArtifacts(inputTreeArtifact);
 
     SpawnActionTemplate.Builder builder = builder(inputTreeArtifact, outputTreeArtifact)
-        .setExecutable(new PathFragment("/bin/cp"))
+        .setExecutable(PathFragment.create("/bin/cp"))
         .setCommandLineTemplate(
             createSimpleCommandLineTemplate(inputTreeArtifact, outputTreeArtifact));
 
     OutputPathMapper mapper = new OutputPathMapper() {
       @Override
       public PathFragment parentRelativeOutputPath(TreeFileArtifact inputTreeFileArtifact) {
-        return new PathFragment("//absolute/" + inputTreeFileArtifact.getParentRelativePath());
+        return PathFragment.create("//absolute/" + inputTreeFileArtifact.getParentRelativePath());
       }
     };
 
@@ -272,7 +272,7 @@ public class SpawnActionTemplateTest {
     mapper = new OutputPathMapper() {
       @Override
       public PathFragment parentRelativeOutputPath(TreeFileArtifact inputTreeFileArtifact) {
-        return new PathFragment("../" + inputTreeFileArtifact.getParentRelativePath());
+        return PathFragment.create("../" + inputTreeFileArtifact.getParentRelativePath());
       }
     };
 
@@ -300,7 +300,7 @@ public class SpawnActionTemplateTest {
     return builder(inputTreeArtifact, outputTreeArtifact)
         .setExecutionInfo(ImmutableMap.<String, String>of("local", ""))
         .setEnvironment(ImmutableMap.<String, String>of("env", "value"))
-        .setExecutable(new PathFragment("/bin/cp"))
+        .setExecutable(PathFragment.create("/bin/cp"))
         .setCommandLineTemplate(
             createSimpleCommandLineTemplate(inputTreeArtifact, outputTreeArtifact))
         .setOutputPathMapper(IDENTITY_MAPPER)
@@ -317,7 +317,7 @@ public class SpawnActionTemplateTest {
   }
 
   private Artifact createTreeArtifact(String rootRelativePath) {
-    PathFragment relpath = new PathFragment(rootRelativePath);
+    PathFragment relpath = PathFragment.create(rootRelativePath);
     return new SpecialArtifact(
         root.getPath().getRelative(relpath),
         root,
@@ -327,7 +327,7 @@ public class SpawnActionTemplateTest {
   }
 
   private Artifact createDerivedArtifact(String rootRelativePath) {
-    return new Artifact(new PathFragment(rootRelativePath), root);
+    return new Artifact(PathFragment.create(rootRelativePath), root);
   }
 
   private CustomCommandLine createSimpleCommandLineTemplate(
@@ -342,8 +342,8 @@ public class SpawnActionTemplateTest {
     return ActionInputHelper.asTreeFileArtifacts(
         inputTreeArtifact,
         ImmutableList.of(
-            new PathFragment("children/child0"),
-            new PathFragment("children/child1"),
-            new PathFragment("children/child2")));
+            PathFragment.create("children/child0"),
+            PathFragment.create("children/child1"),
+            PathFragment.create("children/child2")));
   }
 }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/SpawnActionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/SpawnActionTest.java
index 8aef0e6bed..8629684b75 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/SpawnActionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/SpawnActionTest.java
@@ -77,7 +77,7 @@ public class SpawnActionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
   }
 
   private SpawnAction createCopyFromWelcomeToDestination(Map<String, String> environmentVariables) {
-    PathFragment cp = new PathFragment("/bin/cp");
+    PathFragment cp = PathFragment.create("/bin/cp");
     List<String> arguments = asList(welcomeArtifact.getExecPath().getPathString(),
         destinationArtifact.getExecPath().getPathString());
 
@@ -275,7 +275,7 @@ public class SpawnActionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
     Artifact output1 = getBinArtifactWithNoOwner("output1");
     Artifact output2 = getBinArtifactWithNoOwner("output2");
     Artifact paramFile = getBinArtifactWithNoOwner("output1-2.params");
-    PathFragment executable = new PathFragment("/bin/executable");
+    PathFragment executable = PathFragment.create("/bin/executable");
 
     useConfiguration("--min_param_file_size=500");
 
@@ -353,7 +353,7 @@ public class SpawnActionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
     Action[] actions = builder()
         .addInput(manifest)
         .addRunfilesSupplier(
-            new RunfilesSupplierImpl(new PathFragment("destination"), Runfiles.EMPTY, manifest))
+            new RunfilesSupplierImpl(PathFragment.create("destination"), Runfiles.EMPTY, manifest))
         .addOutput(getBinArtifactWithNoOwner("output"))
         .setExecutable(scratch.file("/bin/xxx").asFragment())
         .setProgressMessage("Test")
@@ -385,15 +385,15 @@ public class SpawnActionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
         builder.setMnemonic((i & 4) == 0 ? "a" : "b");
 
         if ((i & 8) == 0) {
-          builder.addRunfilesSupplier(runfilesSupplier(artifactA, new PathFragment("a")));
+          builder.addRunfilesSupplier(runfilesSupplier(artifactA, PathFragment.create("a")));
         } else {
-          builder.addRunfilesSupplier(runfilesSupplier(artifactB, new PathFragment("a")));
+          builder.addRunfilesSupplier(runfilesSupplier(artifactB, PathFragment.create("a")));
         }
 
         if ((i & 16) == 0) {
-          builder.addRunfilesSupplier(runfilesSupplier(artifactA, new PathFragment("aa")));
+          builder.addRunfilesSupplier(runfilesSupplier(artifactA, PathFragment.create("aa")));
         } else {
-          builder.addRunfilesSupplier(runfilesSupplier(artifactA, new PathFragment("ab")));
+          builder.addRunfilesSupplier(runfilesSupplier(artifactA, PathFragment.create("ab")));
         }
 
         Map<String, String> env = new HashMap<>();
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/util/AnalysisTestUtil.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/util/AnalysisTestUtil.java
index f821e467a7..eb25ec3318 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/util/AnalysisTestUtil.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/util/AnalysisTestUtil.java
@@ -277,10 +277,10 @@ public final class AnalysisTestUtil {
         ArtifactFactory artifactFactory, ArtifactOwner artifactOwner, Supplier<UUID> buildId,
         String workspaceName) {
       Artifact stableStatus = artifactFactory.getDerivedArtifact(
-          new PathFragment("build-info.txt"),
+          PathFragment.create("build-info.txt"),
           directories.getBuildDataDirectory(workspaceName), artifactOwner);
       Artifact volatileStatus = artifactFactory.getConstantMetadataArtifact(
-          new PathFragment("build-changelist.txt"),
+          PathFragment.create("build-changelist.txt"),
           directories.getBuildDataDirectory(workspaceName), artifactOwner);
       return new DummyWorkspaceStatusAction(key, stableStatus, volatileStatus);
     }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/util/BuildViewTestBase.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/util/BuildViewTestBase.java
index d8acbcffc9..184ba7d6fc 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/util/BuildViewTestBase.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/util/BuildViewTestBase.java
@@ -107,7 +107,7 @@ public abstract class BuildViewTestBase extends AnalysisTestCase {
     Path symlinkcycleBuildFile = scratch.file("symlinkcycle/BUILD",
         "sh_library(name = 'cycle', srcs = glob(['*.sh']))");
     Path dirPath = symlinkcycleBuildFile.getParentDirectory();
-    dirPath.getRelative("foo.sh").createSymbolicLink(new PathFragment("foo.sh"));
+    dirPath.getRelative("foo.sh").createSymbolicLink(PathFragment.create("foo.sh"));
     scratch.file("okaypkg/BUILD",
         "sh_library(name = 'transitively-a-cycle',",
         "           srcs = ['//symlinkcycle:cycle'])");
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/util/BuildViewTestCase.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/util/BuildViewTestCase.java
index 576a312c85..47a59a4d86 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/util/BuildViewTestCase.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/util/BuildViewTestCase.java
@@ -773,7 +773,7 @@ public abstract class BuildViewTestCase extends FoundationTestCase {
     }
     skyframeExecutor.invalidateFilesUnderPathForTesting(
         reporter,
-        new ModifiedFileSet.Builder().modify(new PathFragment(buildFilePathString)).build(),
+        new ModifiedFileSet.Builder().modify(PathFragment.create(buildFilePathString)).build(),
         rootDirectory);
     return (Rule) getTarget("//" + packageName + ":" + ruleName);
   }
@@ -924,7 +924,7 @@ public abstract class BuildViewTestCase extends FoundationTestCase {
   }
 
   protected Artifact getSourceArtifact(String name) {
-    return getSourceArtifact(new PathFragment(name), Root.asSourceRoot(rootDirectory));
+    return getSourceArtifact(PathFragment.create(name), Root.asSourceRoot(rootDirectory));
   }
 
   /**
@@ -959,7 +959,7 @@ public abstract class BuildViewTestCase extends FoundationTestCase {
    * used instead.
    */
   protected Artifact getBinArtifactWithNoOwner(String rootRelativePath) {
-    return getDerivedArtifact(new PathFragment(rootRelativePath),
+    return getDerivedArtifact(PathFragment.create(rootRelativePath),
         targetConfig.getBinDirectory(RepositoryName.MAIN),
         ActionsTestUtil.NULL_ARTIFACT_OWNER);
   }
@@ -1037,7 +1037,7 @@ public abstract class BuildViewTestCase extends FoundationTestCase {
    * #getGenfilesArtifact(String, ArtifactOwner)} or its convenience methods should be used instead.
    */
   protected Artifact getGenfilesArtifactWithNoOwner(String rootRelativePath) {
-    return getDerivedArtifact(new PathFragment(rootRelativePath),
+    return getDerivedArtifact(PathFragment.create(rootRelativePath),
         targetConfig.getGenfilesDirectory(RepositoryName.MAIN),
         ActionsTestUtil.NULL_ARTIFACT_OWNER);
   }
@@ -1150,7 +1150,7 @@ public abstract class BuildViewTestCase extends FoundationTestCase {
    * @param owner the artifact's owner.
    */
   protected Artifact getSharedArtifact(String rootRelativePath, ConfiguredTarget owner) {
-    return getDerivedArtifact(new PathFragment(rootRelativePath),
+    return getDerivedArtifact(PathFragment.create(rootRelativePath),
         targetConfig.getBinDirectory(RepositoryName.MAIN),
         new ConfiguredTargetKey(owner));
   }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/bazel/repository/StripPrefixedPathTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/bazel/repository/StripPrefixedPathTest.java
index f3ab3f1b8d..d2ca3ac072 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/bazel/repository/StripPrefixedPathTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/bazel/repository/StripPrefixedPathTest.java
@@ -35,7 +35,7 @@ public class StripPrefixedPathTest {
   @Test
   public void testStrip() {
     StripPrefixedPath result = StripPrefixedPath.maybeDeprefix("foo/bar", Optional.of("foo"));
-    assertEquals(result.getPathFragment(), new PathFragment("bar"));
+    assertEquals(result.getPathFragment(), PathFragment.create("bar"));
     assertTrue(result.foundPrefix());
     assertFalse(result.skip());
 
@@ -53,13 +53,13 @@ public class StripPrefixedPathTest {
   public void testAbsolute() {
     StripPrefixedPath result = StripPrefixedPath.maybeDeprefix(
         "/foo/bar", Optional.<String>absent());
-    assertThat(result.getPathFragment()).isEqualTo(new PathFragment("foo/bar"));
+    assertThat(result.getPathFragment()).isEqualTo(PathFragment.create("foo/bar"));
 
     result = StripPrefixedPath.maybeDeprefix("///foo/bar/baz", Optional.<String>absent());
-    assertThat(result.getPathFragment()).isEqualTo(new PathFragment("foo/bar/baz"));
+    assertThat(result.getPathFragment()).isEqualTo(PathFragment.create("foo/bar/baz"));
 
     result = StripPrefixedPath.maybeDeprefix("/foo/bar/baz", Optional.of("/foo"));
-    assertThat(result.getPathFragment()).isEqualTo(new PathFragment("bar/baz"));
+    assertThat(result.getPathFragment()).isEqualTo(PathFragment.create("bar/baz"));
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -69,19 +69,19 @@ public class StripPrefixedPathTest {
     }
     StripPrefixedPath result = StripPrefixedPath.maybeDeprefix(
         "c:/foo/bar", Optional.<String>absent());
-    assertThat(result.getPathFragment()).isEqualTo(new PathFragment("foo/bar"));
+    assertThat(result.getPathFragment()).isEqualTo(PathFragment.create("foo/bar"));
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testNormalize() {
     StripPrefixedPath result = StripPrefixedPath.maybeDeprefix(
         "../bar", Optional.<String>absent());
-    assertThat(result.getPathFragment()).isEqualTo(new PathFragment("../bar"));
+    assertThat(result.getPathFragment()).isEqualTo(PathFragment.create("../bar"));
 
     result = StripPrefixedPath.maybeDeprefix("foo/../baz", Optional.<String>absent());
-    assertThat(result.getPathFragment()).isEqualTo(new PathFragment("baz"));
+    assertThat(result.getPathFragment()).isEqualTo(PathFragment.create("baz"));
 
     result = StripPrefixedPath.maybeDeprefix("foo/../baz", Optional.of("foo"));
-    assertThat(result.getPathFragment()).isEqualTo(new PathFragment("baz"));
+    assertThat(result.getPathFragment()).isEqualTo(PathFragment.create("baz"));
   }
 }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/bazel/rules/genrule/GenRuleConfiguredTargetTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/bazel/rules/genrule/GenRuleConfiguredTargetTest.java
index b5f18a79d7..7d323807d4 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/bazel/rules/genrule/GenRuleConfiguredTargetTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/bazel/rules/genrule/GenRuleConfiguredTargetTest.java
@@ -106,7 +106,7 @@ public class GenRuleConfiguredTargetTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
     createFiles();
     ConfiguredTarget z = getConfiguredTarget("//hello:z");
     Artifact y = getOnlyElement(getFilesToBuild(z));
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment("hello/x/y"), y.getRootRelativePath());
+    assertEquals(PathFragment.create("hello/x/y"), y.getRootRelativePath());
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -115,8 +115,8 @@ public class GenRuleConfiguredTargetTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
     ConfiguredTarget z = getConfiguredTarget("//hello:w");
     List<Artifact> files = getFilesToBuild(z).toList();
     assertThat(files).hasSize(2);
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment("hello/a/b"), files.get(0).getRootRelativePath());
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment("hello/c/d"), files.get(1).getRootRelativePath());
+    assertEquals(PathFragment.create("hello/a/b"), files.get(0).getRootRelativePath());
+    assertEquals(PathFragment.create("hello/c/d"), files.get(1).getRootRelativePath());
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -236,10 +236,10 @@ public class GenRuleConfiguredTargetTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
     FileConfiguredTarget bazOutTarget = getFileConfiguredTarget("//foo:baz_out.txt");
     Action bazAction = getGeneratingAction(bazOutTarget.getArtifact());
     Artifact barOut = bazAction.getInputs().iterator().next();
-    assertTrue(barOut.getExecPath().endsWith(new PathFragment("foo/bar_out.txt")));
+    assertTrue(barOut.getExecPath().endsWith(PathFragment.create("foo/bar_out.txt")));
     Action barAction = getGeneratingAction(barOut);
     Artifact barIn = barAction.getInputs().iterator().next();
-    assertTrue(barIn.getExecPath().endsWith(new PathFragment("foo/bar_in.txt")));
+    assertTrue(barIn.getExecPath().endsWith(PathFragment.create("foo/bar_in.txt")));
   }
 
   /** Ensure that variable $(@D) gets expanded correctly in the genrule cmd. */
@@ -279,7 +279,7 @@ public class GenRuleConfiguredTargetTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
     getConfiguredTarget("//foo:bar");
 
     Artifact barOut = bazAction.getInputs().iterator().next();
-    assertTrue(barOut.getExecPath().endsWith(new PathFragment("foo/bar/bar_out.txt")));
+    assertTrue(barOut.getExecPath().endsWith(PathFragment.create("foo/bar/bar_out.txt")));
     SpawnAction barAction = (SpawnAction) getGeneratingAction(barOut);
     String barExpected = "touch " + barOut.getExecPath().getParentDirectory().getPathString();
     assertCommandEquals(barExpected, barAction.getArguments().get(2));
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/bazel/rules/java/BazelJavaSemanticsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/bazel/rules/java/BazelJavaSemanticsTest.java
index 529053b42e..6758e80089 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/bazel/rules/java/BazelJavaSemanticsTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/bazel/rules/java/BazelJavaSemanticsTest.java
@@ -30,15 +30,21 @@ public class BazelJavaSemanticsTest {
   @Test
   public void testFindingResources() {
     BazelJavaSemantics semantics = BazelJavaSemantics.INSTANCE;
-    assertEquals(PathFragment.EMPTY_FRAGMENT,
-        semantics.getDefaultJavaResourcePath(new PathFragment("x/y/src/main/resources")));
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment("foo"),
-        semantics.getDefaultJavaResourcePath(new PathFragment("x/y/src/main/resources/foo")));
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment("foo"),
-        semantics.getDefaultJavaResourcePath(new PathFragment("java/x/y/src/main/resources/foo")));
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment("foo/java/bar"),
-        semantics.getDefaultJavaResourcePath(new PathFragment("java/foo/java/bar")));
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment("foo/java/bar"),
-        semantics.getDefaultJavaResourcePath(new PathFragment("javatests/foo/java/bar")));
+    assertEquals(
+        PathFragment.EMPTY_FRAGMENT,
+        semantics.getDefaultJavaResourcePath(PathFragment.create("x/y/src/main/resources")));
+    assertEquals(
+        PathFragment.create("foo"),
+        semantics.getDefaultJavaResourcePath(PathFragment.create("x/y/src/main/resources/foo")));
+    assertEquals(
+        PathFragment.create("foo"),
+        semantics.getDefaultJavaResourcePath(
+            PathFragment.create("java/x/y/src/main/resources/foo")));
+    assertEquals(
+        PathFragment.create("foo/java/bar"),
+        semantics.getDefaultJavaResourcePath(PathFragment.create("java/foo/java/bar")));
+    assertEquals(
+        PathFragment.create("foo/java/bar"),
+        semantics.getDefaultJavaResourcePath(PathFragment.create("javatests/foo/java/bar")));
   }
 }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/buildtool/SymlinkForestTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/buildtool/SymlinkForestTest.java
index 3c93edcb42..31ba09065f 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/buildtool/SymlinkForestTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/buildtool/SymlinkForestTest.java
@@ -113,7 +113,7 @@ public class SymlinkForestTest {
 
   @Test
   public void testLongestPathPrefix() {
-    PathFragment a = new PathFragment("A");
+    PathFragment a = PathFragment.create("A");
     assertEquals(a, longestPathPrefix("A/b", "A", "B")); // simple parent
     assertEquals(a, longestPathPrefix("A", "A", "B")); // self
     assertEquals(a.getRelative("B"), longestPathPrefix("A/B/c", "A", "A/B"));  // want longest
@@ -151,7 +151,7 @@ public class SymlinkForestTest {
       createDirectoryAndParents(repoRoot.getRelative(pkg));
       FileSystemUtils.createEmptyFile(repoRoot.getRelative(pkg).getChild("file"));
     }
-    return PackageIdentifier.create(RepositoryName.create("@" + repo), new PathFragment(pkg));
+    return PackageIdentifier.create(RepositoryName.create("@" + repo), PathFragment.create(pkg));
   }
 
   private void assertLinksTo(Path fromRoot, Path toRoot, String relpart) throws IOException {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/cmdline/LabelTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/cmdline/LabelTest.java
index b98d61877f..74e1248723 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/cmdline/LabelTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/cmdline/LabelTest.java
@@ -62,7 +62,7 @@ public class LabelTest {
   }
 
   private static String parseCommandLine(String label, String prefix) throws LabelSyntaxException {
-    return Label.parseCommandLineLabel(label, new PathFragment(prefix)).toString();
+    return Label.parseCommandLineLabel(label, PathFragment.create(prefix)).toString();
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -144,43 +144,43 @@ public class LabelTest {
 
   @Test
   public void testGetRelativeWithDifferentRepo() throws Exception {
-    PackageIdentifier packageId = PackageIdentifier.create("@repo", new PathFragment("foo"));
+    PackageIdentifier packageId = PackageIdentifier.create("@repo", PathFragment.create("foo"));
     Label base = Label.create(packageId, "bar");
 
     Label relative = base.getRelative("@remote//x:y");
 
     assertEquals(RepositoryName.create("@remote"), relative.getPackageIdentifier().getRepository());
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment("x"), relative.getPackageFragment());
+    assertEquals(PathFragment.create("x"), relative.getPackageFragment());
     assertEquals("y", relative.getName());
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testGetRelativeWithRepoLocalAbsoluteLabel() throws Exception {
-    PackageIdentifier packageId = PackageIdentifier.create("@repo", new PathFragment("foo"));
+    PackageIdentifier packageId = PackageIdentifier.create("@repo", PathFragment.create("foo"));
     Label base = Label.create(packageId, "bar");
 
     Label relative = base.getRelative("//x:y");
 
     assertEquals(packageId.getRepository(), relative.getPackageIdentifier().getRepository());
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment("x"), relative.getPackageFragment());
+    assertEquals(PathFragment.create("x"), relative.getPackageFragment());
     assertEquals("y", relative.getName());
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testGetRelativeWithLocalRepoRelativeLabel() throws Exception {
-    PackageIdentifier packageId = PackageIdentifier.create("@repo", new PathFragment("foo"));
+    PackageIdentifier packageId = PackageIdentifier.create("@repo", PathFragment.create("foo"));
     Label base = Label.create(packageId, "bar");
 
     Label relative = base.getRelative(":y");
 
     assertEquals(packageId.getRepository(), relative.getPackageIdentifier().getRepository());
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment("foo"), relative.getPackageFragment());
+    assertEquals(PathFragment.create("foo"), relative.getPackageFragment());
     assertEquals("y", relative.getName());
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testGetRelativeWithRepoAndReservedPackage() throws Exception {
-    PackageIdentifier packageId = PackageIdentifier.create("@repo", new PathFragment("foo"));
+    PackageIdentifier packageId = PackageIdentifier.create("@repo", PathFragment.create("foo"));
     Label base = Label.create(packageId, "bar");
 
     Label relative = base.getRelative("//conditions:default");
@@ -193,13 +193,13 @@ public class LabelTest {
 
   @Test
   public void testGetRelativeWithRemoteRepoToDefaultRepo() throws Exception {
-    PackageIdentifier packageId = PackageIdentifier.create("@repo", new PathFragment("foo"));
+    PackageIdentifier packageId = PackageIdentifier.create("@repo", PathFragment.create("foo"));
     Label base = Label.create(packageId, "bar");
 
     Label relative = base.getRelative("@//x:y");
 
     assertEquals(RepositoryName.create("@"), relative.getPackageIdentifier().getRepository());
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment("x"), relative.getPackageFragment());
+    assertEquals(PathFragment.create("x"), relative.getPackageFragment());
     assertEquals("y", relative.getName());
   }
 
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/cmdline/PackageIdentifierTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/cmdline/PackageIdentifierTest.java
index a19ef4b7a3..f01a48c1a1 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/cmdline/PackageIdentifierTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/cmdline/PackageIdentifierTest.java
@@ -40,7 +40,7 @@ public class PackageIdentifierTest {
     assertThat(fooA.getRepository().strippedName()).isEqualTo("foo");
     assertThat(fooA.getPackageFragment().getPathString()).isEqualTo("a");
     assertThat(fooA.getRepository().getSourceRoot()).isEqualTo(
-        new PathFragment("external/foo"));
+        PathFragment.create("external/foo"));
 
     PackageIdentifier absoluteA = PackageIdentifier.parse("//a");
     assertThat(absoluteA.getRepository().strippedName()).isEqualTo("");
@@ -58,18 +58,18 @@ public class PackageIdentifierTest {
 
   @Test
   public void testToString() throws Exception {
-    PackageIdentifier local = PackageIdentifier.create("", new PathFragment("bar/baz"));
+    PackageIdentifier local = PackageIdentifier.create("", PathFragment.create("bar/baz"));
     assertEquals("bar/baz", local.toString());
-    PackageIdentifier external = PackageIdentifier.create("@foo", new PathFragment("bar/baz"));
+    PackageIdentifier external = PackageIdentifier.create("@foo", PathFragment.create("bar/baz"));
     assertEquals("@foo//bar/baz", external.toString());
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testCompareTo() throws Exception {
-    PackageIdentifier foo1 = PackageIdentifier.create("@foo", new PathFragment("bar/baz"));
-    PackageIdentifier foo2 = PackageIdentifier.create("@foo", new PathFragment("bar/baz"));
-    PackageIdentifier foo3 = PackageIdentifier.create("@foo", new PathFragment("bar/bz"));
-    PackageIdentifier bar = PackageIdentifier.create("@bar", new PathFragment("bar/baz"));
+    PackageIdentifier foo1 = PackageIdentifier.create("@foo", PathFragment.create("bar/baz"));
+    PackageIdentifier foo2 = PackageIdentifier.create("@foo", PathFragment.create("bar/baz"));
+    PackageIdentifier foo3 = PackageIdentifier.create("@foo", PathFragment.create("bar/bz"));
+    PackageIdentifier bar = PackageIdentifier.create("@bar", PathFragment.create("bar/baz"));
     assertEquals(0, foo1.compareTo(foo2));
     assertThat(foo1.compareTo(foo3)).isLessThan(0);
     assertThat(foo1.compareTo(bar)).isGreaterThan(0);
@@ -78,12 +78,12 @@ public class PackageIdentifierTest {
   @Test
   public void testInvalidPackageName() throws Exception {
     // This shouldn't throw an exception, package names aren't validated.
-    PackageIdentifier.create("@foo", new PathFragment("bar.baz"));
+    PackageIdentifier.create("@foo", PathFragment.create("bar.baz"));
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testSerialization() throws Exception {
-    PackageIdentifier inId = PackageIdentifier.create("@foo", new PathFragment("bar/baz"));
+    PackageIdentifier inId = PackageIdentifier.create("@foo", PathFragment.create("bar/baz"));
     ByteArrayOutputStream data = new ByteArrayOutputStream();
     ObjectOutputStream out = new ObjectOutputStream(data);
     out.writeObject(inId);
@@ -95,16 +95,16 @@ public class PackageIdentifierTest {
   @Test
   public void testPackageFragmentEquality() throws Exception {
     // Make sure package fragments are canonicalized.
-    PackageIdentifier p1 = PackageIdentifier.create("@whatever", new PathFragment("foo/bar"));
-    PackageIdentifier p2 = PackageIdentifier.create("@whatever", new PathFragment("foo/bar"));
+    PackageIdentifier p1 = PackageIdentifier.create("@whatever", PathFragment.create("foo/bar"));
+    PackageIdentifier p2 = PackageIdentifier.create("@whatever", PathFragment.create("foo/bar"));
     assertSame(p2.getPackageFragment(), p1.getPackageFragment());
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testRunfilesDir() throws Exception {
-    assertThat(PackageIdentifier.create("@foo", new PathFragment("bar/baz")).getRunfilesPath())
-        .isEqualTo(new PathFragment("../foo/bar/baz"));
-    assertThat(PackageIdentifier.create("@", new PathFragment("bar/baz")).getRunfilesPath())
-        .isEqualTo(new PathFragment("bar/baz"));
+    assertThat(PackageIdentifier.create("@foo", PathFragment.create("bar/baz")).getRunfilesPath())
+        .isEqualTo(PathFragment.create("../foo/bar/baz"));
+    assertThat(PackageIdentifier.create("@", PathFragment.create("bar/baz")).getRunfilesPath())
+        .isEqualTo(PathFragment.create("bar/baz"));
   }
 }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/cmdline/RepositoryNameTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/cmdline/RepositoryNameTest.java
index 9a39bbfda1..6970b5e23b 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/cmdline/RepositoryNameTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/cmdline/RepositoryNameTest.java
@@ -60,7 +60,7 @@ public class RepositoryNameTest {
   @Test
   public void testRunfilesDir() throws Exception {
     assertThat(RepositoryName.create("@foo").getRunfilesPath())
-        .isEqualTo(new PathFragment("../foo"));
+        .isEqualTo(PathFragment.create("../foo"));
     assertThat(RepositoryName.create("@").getRunfilesPath())
         .isEqualTo(PathFragment.EMPTY_FRAGMENT);
     assertThat(RepositoryName.create("").getRunfilesPath())
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/events/EventTestTemplate.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/events/EventTestTemplate.java
index e505586449..136c7b96ef 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/events/EventTestTemplate.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/events/EventTestTemplate.java
@@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ public abstract class EventTestTemplate {
   @Before
   public final void createLocations() throws Exception  {
     String message = "This is not an error message.";
-    path = new PathFragment("/path/to/workspace/my/sample/path.txt");
+    path = PathFragment.create("/path/to/workspace/my/sample/path.txt");
 
     location = Location.fromPathAndStartColumn(path, 21, 31, new LineAndColumn(3, 4));
 
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/events/LocationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/events/LocationTest.java
index 23ed25e733..5c1c8875ac 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/events/LocationTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/events/LocationTest.java
@@ -39,13 +39,20 @@ public class LocationTest extends EventTestTemplate {
   @Test
   public void testPrintRelative() throws Exception {
     Location location = Location.fromPathFragment(path);
-    assertEquals("/path/to/workspace/my/sample/path.txt:1",
-        location.print(new PathFragment("/some/other/path"), new PathFragment("baz")));
-    assertEquals("new/sample/path.txt:1",
-        location.print(new PathFragment("/path/to/workspace/my"), new PathFragment("new")));
-    assertEquals("new/path.txt:1",
-        location.print(new PathFragment("/path/to/workspace/my/sample"), new PathFragment("new")));
-    assertEquals("new:1", location.print(new PathFragment("/path/to/workspace/my/sample/path.txt"),
-        new PathFragment("new")));
+    assertEquals(
+        "/path/to/workspace/my/sample/path.txt:1",
+        location.print(PathFragment.create("/some/other/path"), PathFragment.create("baz")));
+    assertEquals(
+        "new/sample/path.txt:1",
+        location.print(PathFragment.create("/path/to/workspace/my"), PathFragment.create("new")));
+    assertEquals(
+        "new/path.txt:1",
+        location.print(
+            PathFragment.create("/path/to/workspace/my/sample"), PathFragment.create("new")));
+    assertEquals(
+        "new:1",
+        location.print(
+            PathFragment.create("/path/to/workspace/my/sample/path.txt"),
+            PathFragment.create("new")));
   }
 }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/exec/ParameterFileTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/exec/ParameterFileTest.java
index 491cf097ac..5c97c2a2a6 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/exec/ParameterFileTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/exec/ParameterFileTest.java
@@ -34,8 +34,11 @@ public class ParameterFileTest extends FoundationTestCase {
 
   @Test
   public void testDerive() {
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment("a/b-2.params"),
-        ParameterFile.derivePath(new PathFragment("a/b")));
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment("b-2.params"), ParameterFile.derivePath(new PathFragment("b")));
+    assertEquals(
+        PathFragment.create("a/b-2.params"),
+        ParameterFile.derivePath(PathFragment.create("a/b")));
+    assertEquals(
+        PathFragment.create("b-2.params"),
+        ParameterFile.derivePath(PathFragment.create("b")));
   }
 }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/exec/SpawnInputExpanderTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/exec/SpawnInputExpanderTest.java
index fdfa655371..5b6db72c27 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/exec/SpawnInputExpanderTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/exec/SpawnInputExpanderTest.java
@@ -74,14 +74,14 @@ public class SpawnInputExpanderTest {
     Artifact artifact =
         new Artifact(fs.getPath("/root/dir/file"), Root.asSourceRoot(fs.getPath("/root")));
     Runfiles runfiles = new Runfiles.Builder("workspace").addArtifact(artifact).build();
-    RunfilesSupplier supplier = new RunfilesSupplierImpl(new PathFragment("runfiles"), runfiles);
+    RunfilesSupplier supplier = new RunfilesSupplierImpl(PathFragment.create("runfiles"), runfiles);
     ActionInputFileCache mockCache = Mockito.mock(ActionInputFileCache.class);
     Mockito.when(mockCache.isFile(artifact)).thenReturn(true);
 
     expander.addRunfilesToInputs(inputMappings, supplier, mockCache);
     assertThat(inputMappings).hasSize(1);
     assertThat(inputMappings)
-        .containsEntry(new PathFragment("runfiles/workspace/dir/file"), artifact);
+        .containsEntry(PathFragment.create("runfiles/workspace/dir/file"), artifact);
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -89,7 +89,7 @@ public class SpawnInputExpanderTest {
     Artifact artifact =
         new Artifact(fs.getPath("/root/dir/file"), Root.asSourceRoot(fs.getPath("/root")));
     Runfiles runfiles = new Runfiles.Builder("workspace").addArtifact(artifact).build();
-    RunfilesSupplier supplier = new RunfilesSupplierImpl(new PathFragment("runfiles"), runfiles);
+    RunfilesSupplier supplier = new RunfilesSupplierImpl(PathFragment.create("runfiles"), runfiles);
     ActionInputFileCache mockCache = Mockito.mock(ActionInputFileCache.class);
     Mockito.when(mockCache.isFile(artifact)).thenReturn(false);
 
@@ -106,7 +106,7 @@ public class SpawnInputExpanderTest {
     Artifact artifact =
         new Artifact(fs.getPath("/root/dir/file"), Root.asSourceRoot(fs.getPath("/root")));
     Runfiles runfiles = new Runfiles.Builder("workspace").addArtifact(artifact).build();
-    RunfilesSupplier supplier = new RunfilesSupplierImpl(new PathFragment("runfiles"), runfiles);
+    RunfilesSupplier supplier = new RunfilesSupplierImpl(PathFragment.create("runfiles"), runfiles);
     ActionInputFileCache mockCache = Mockito.mock(ActionInputFileCache.class);
     Mockito.when(mockCache.isFile(artifact)).thenReturn(false);
 
@@ -114,7 +114,7 @@ public class SpawnInputExpanderTest {
     expander.addRunfilesToInputs(inputMappings, supplier, mockCache);
     assertThat(inputMappings).hasSize(1);
     assertThat(inputMappings)
-        .containsEntry(new PathFragment("runfiles/workspace/dir/file"), artifact);
+        .containsEntry(PathFragment.create("runfiles/workspace/dir/file"), artifact);
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -127,7 +127,7 @@ public class SpawnInputExpanderTest {
         .addArtifact(artifact1)
         .addArtifact(artifact2)
         .build();
-    RunfilesSupplier supplier = new RunfilesSupplierImpl(new PathFragment("runfiles"), runfiles);
+    RunfilesSupplier supplier = new RunfilesSupplierImpl(PathFragment.create("runfiles"), runfiles);
     ActionInputFileCache mockCache = Mockito.mock(ActionInputFileCache.class);
     Mockito.when(mockCache.isFile(artifact1)).thenReturn(true);
     Mockito.when(mockCache.isFile(artifact2)).thenReturn(true);
@@ -135,9 +135,9 @@ public class SpawnInputExpanderTest {
     expander.addRunfilesToInputs(inputMappings, supplier, mockCache);
     assertThat(inputMappings).hasSize(2);
     assertThat(inputMappings)
-        .containsEntry(new PathFragment("runfiles/workspace/dir/file"), artifact1);
+        .containsEntry(PathFragment.create("runfiles/workspace/dir/file"), artifact1);
     assertThat(inputMappings)
-        .containsEntry(new PathFragment("runfiles/workspace/dir/baz"), artifact2);
+        .containsEntry(PathFragment.create("runfiles/workspace/dir/baz"), artifact2);
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -145,15 +145,15 @@ public class SpawnInputExpanderTest {
     Artifact artifact =
         new Artifact(fs.getPath("/root/dir/file"), Root.asSourceRoot(fs.getPath("/root")));
     Runfiles runfiles = new Runfiles.Builder("workspace")
-        .addSymlink(new PathFragment("symlink"), artifact).build();
-    RunfilesSupplier supplier = new RunfilesSupplierImpl(new PathFragment("runfiles"), runfiles);
+        .addSymlink(PathFragment.create("symlink"), artifact).build();
+    RunfilesSupplier supplier = new RunfilesSupplierImpl(PathFragment.create("runfiles"), runfiles);
     ActionInputFileCache mockCache = Mockito.mock(ActionInputFileCache.class);
     Mockito.when(mockCache.isFile(artifact)).thenReturn(true);
 
     expander.addRunfilesToInputs(inputMappings, supplier, mockCache);
     assertThat(inputMappings).hasSize(1);
     assertThat(inputMappings)
-        .containsEntry(new PathFragment("runfiles/workspace/symlink"), artifact);
+        .containsEntry(PathFragment.create("runfiles/workspace/symlink"), artifact);
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -161,19 +161,19 @@ public class SpawnInputExpanderTest {
     Artifact artifact =
         new Artifact(fs.getPath("/root/dir/file"), Root.asSourceRoot(fs.getPath("/root")));
     Runfiles runfiles = new Runfiles.Builder("workspace")
-        .addRootSymlink(new PathFragment("symlink"), artifact).build();
-    RunfilesSupplier supplier = new RunfilesSupplierImpl(new PathFragment("runfiles"), runfiles);
+        .addRootSymlink(PathFragment.create("symlink"), artifact).build();
+    RunfilesSupplier supplier = new RunfilesSupplierImpl(PathFragment.create("runfiles"), runfiles);
     ActionInputFileCache mockCache = Mockito.mock(ActionInputFileCache.class);
     Mockito.when(mockCache.isFile(artifact)).thenReturn(true);
 
     expander.addRunfilesToInputs(inputMappings, supplier, mockCache);
     assertThat(inputMappings).hasSize(2);
-    assertThat(inputMappings).containsEntry(new PathFragment("runfiles/symlink"), artifact);
+    assertThat(inputMappings).containsEntry(PathFragment.create("runfiles/symlink"), artifact);
     // If there's no other entry, Runfiles adds an empty file in the workspace to make sure the
     // directory gets created.
     assertThat(inputMappings)
         .containsEntry(
-            new PathFragment("runfiles/workspace/.runfile"), SpawnInputExpander.EMPTY_FILE);
+            PathFragment.create("runfiles/workspace/.runfile"), SpawnInputExpander.EMPTY_FILE);
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -200,7 +200,7 @@ public class SpawnInputExpanderTest {
     expander.parseFilesetManifest(inputMappings, artifact, "workspace");
     assertThat(inputMappings).hasSize(1);
     assertThat(inputMappings)
-        .containsEntry(new PathFragment("foo/bar"), ActionInputHelper.fromPath("/dir/file"));
+        .containsEntry(PathFragment.create("foo/bar"), ActionInputHelper.fromPath("/dir/file"));
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -218,9 +218,9 @@ public class SpawnInputExpanderTest {
     expander.parseFilesetManifest(inputMappings, artifact, "workspace");
     assertThat(inputMappings).hasSize(2);
     assertThat(inputMappings)
-        .containsEntry(new PathFragment("foo/bar"), ActionInputHelper.fromPath("/dir/file"));
+        .containsEntry(PathFragment.create("foo/bar"), ActionInputHelper.fromPath("/dir/file"));
     assertThat(inputMappings)
-        .containsEntry(new PathFragment("foo/baz"), ActionInputHelper.fromPath("/dir/file"));
+        .containsEntry(PathFragment.create("foo/baz"), ActionInputHelper.fromPath("/dir/file"));
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -237,6 +237,6 @@ public class SpawnInputExpanderTest {
     assertThat(inputMappings).hasSize(1);
     assertThat(inputMappings)
         .containsEntry(
-            new PathFragment("foo/bar"), ActionInputHelper.fromPath("/some"));
+            PathFragment.create("foo/bar"), ActionInputHelper.fromPath("/some"));
   }
 }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/packages/PackageFactoryTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/packages/PackageFactoryTest.java
index 3573827c81..7ab592eccf 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/packages/PackageFactoryTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/packages/PackageFactoryTest.java
@@ -259,7 +259,7 @@ public class PackageFactoryTest extends PackageFactoryTestBase {
             "genrule(name='c', srcs=[], outs=['ao'], cmd=REPOSITORY_NAME + ' ' + PACKAGE_NAME)");
     Package pkg =
         packages.createPackage(
-            PackageIdentifier.create("@a", new PathFragment("b")), buildFile, events.reporter());
+            PackageIdentifier.create("@a", PathFragment.create("b")), buildFile, events.reporter());
     Rule c = pkg.getRule("c");
     assertThat(AggregatingAttributeMapper.of(c).get("cmd", Type.STRING)).isEqualTo("@a b");
   }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/packages/PackageGroupStaticInitializationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/packages/PackageGroupStaticInitializationTest.java
index 404b7aa6fd..f05709d4e4 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/packages/PackageGroupStaticInitializationTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/packages/PackageGroupStaticInitializationTest.java
@@ -88,7 +88,7 @@ public class PackageGroupStaticInitializationTest {
   }
 
   private Package getPackage(String packageName) throws Exception {
-    PathFragment buildFileFragment = new PathFragment(packageName).getRelative("BUILD");
+    PathFragment buildFileFragment = PathFragment.create(packageName).getRelative("BUILD");
     Path buildFile = scratch.resolve(buildFileFragment.getPathString());
     return packages.createPackage(packageName, buildFile);
   }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/packages/PackageGroupTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/packages/PackageGroupTest.java
index 50ca2682c8..55e8da9c21 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/packages/PackageGroupTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/packages/PackageGroupTest.java
@@ -154,7 +154,7 @@ public class PackageGroupTest {
   }
 
   private Package getPackage(String packageName) throws Exception {
-    PathFragment buildFileFragment = new PathFragment(packageName).getRelative("BUILD");
+    PathFragment buildFileFragment = PathFragment.create(packageName).getRelative("BUILD");
 
     Path buildFile = scratch.resolve(buildFileFragment.getPathString());
     return packages.createPackage(packageName, buildFile);
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/packages/RelativePackageNameResolverTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/packages/RelativePackageNameResolverTest.java
index 9f2f9b6931..fee2a7c3d2 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/packages/RelativePackageNameResolverTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/packages/RelativePackageNameResolverTest.java
@@ -112,7 +112,7 @@ public class RelativePackageNameResolverTest {
   }
 
   private void createResolver(String offset, boolean discardBuild) {
-    resolver = new RelativePackageNameResolver(new PathFragment(offset), discardBuild);
+    resolver = new RelativePackageNameResolver(PathFragment.create(offset), discardBuild);
   }
 
   private void assertResolvesTo(String relative, String expectedAbsolute) throws Exception {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/packages/util/MockCcSupport.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/packages/util/MockCcSupport.java
index e2d13a00ac..ea92b1704a 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/packages/util/MockCcSupport.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/packages/util/MockCcSupport.java
@@ -603,7 +603,7 @@ public abstract class MockCcSupport {
     try {
       return PackageIdentifier.create(
           RepositoryName.create(TestConstants.TOOLS_REPOSITORY),
-          new PathFragment(TestConstants.TOOLS_REPOSITORY_PATH));
+          PathFragment.create(TestConstants.TOOLS_REPOSITORY_PATH));
     } catch (LabelSyntaxException e) {
       Verify.verify(false);
       throw new AssertionError();
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/packages/util/SubincludePreprocessor.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/packages/util/SubincludePreprocessor.java
index dd161a2933..e9b4a9bc56 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/packages/util/SubincludePreprocessor.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/packages/util/SubincludePreprocessor.java
@@ -95,7 +95,8 @@ public class SubincludePreprocessor implements Preprocessor {
       return "";
     }
 
-    Path subinclude = buildFile.getParentDirectory().getRelative(new PathFragment(label.getName()));
+    Path subinclude =
+        buildFile.getParentDirectory().getRelative(PathFragment.create(label.getName()));
     return subinclude.getPathString();
   }
 
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/pkgcache/IOExceptionsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/pkgcache/IOExceptionsTest.java
index 9f5edaf8ef..6472f01279 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/pkgcache/IOExceptionsTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/pkgcache/IOExceptionsTest.java
@@ -79,7 +79,7 @@ public class IOExceptionsTest extends PackageLoadingTestCase {
 
   @Override
   protected FileSystem createFileSystem() {
-    return new InMemoryFileSystem(BlazeClock.instance(), new PathFragment(FS_ROOT)) {
+    return new InMemoryFileSystem(BlazeClock.instance(), PathFragment.create(FS_ROOT)) {
       @Override
       public FileStatus stat(Path path, boolean followSymlinks) throws IOException {
         String crash = crashMessage.apply(path);
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/pkgcache/IncrementalLoadingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/pkgcache/IncrementalLoadingTest.java
index de78d51e1e..bc5800e246 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/pkgcache/IncrementalLoadingTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/pkgcache/IncrementalLoadingTest.java
@@ -524,7 +524,7 @@ public class IncrementalLoadingTest {
       Path path = workspace.getRelative(fileName);
       Preconditions.checkState(!path.exists());
       FileSystemUtils.createDirectoryAndParents(path.getParentDirectory());
-      path.createSymbolicLink(new PathFragment(target));
+      path.createSymbolicLink(PathFragment.create(target));
       changes.add(path);
     }
 
@@ -546,7 +546,7 @@ public class IncrementalLoadingTest {
       Path symlink = workspace.getRelative(fileName);
       Preconditions.checkState(symlink.exists());
       symlink.delete();
-      symlink.createSymbolicLink(new PathFragment(newTarget));
+      symlink.createSymbolicLink(PathFragment.create(newTarget));
       changes.add(symlink);
     }
 
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/pkgcache/LoadingPhaseRunnerTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/pkgcache/LoadingPhaseRunnerTest.java
index 9cf3254d92..4ca07f9bd9 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/pkgcache/LoadingPhaseRunnerTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/pkgcache/LoadingPhaseRunnerTest.java
@@ -468,8 +468,8 @@ public class LoadingPhaseRunnerTest {
     tester.getWorkspace().getChild("broken").createDirectory();
 
     // Create a circular symlink.
-    tester.getWorkspace().getRelative(new PathFragment("broken/BUILD"))
-        .createSymbolicLink(new PathFragment("BUILD"));
+    tester.getWorkspace().getRelative(PathFragment.create("broken/BUILD"))
+        .createSymbolicLink(PathFragment.create("BUILD"));
 
     assertCircularSymlinksDuringTargetParsing("//broken/...");
   }
@@ -479,10 +479,10 @@ public class LoadingPhaseRunnerTest {
     tester.getWorkspace().getChild("broken").createDirectory();
 
     // Create a circular symlink.
-    tester.getWorkspace().getRelative(new PathFragment("broken/BUILD"))
-        .createSymbolicLink(new PathFragment("x"));
-    tester.getWorkspace().getRelative(new PathFragment("broken/x"))
-        .createSymbolicLink(new PathFragment("BUILD"));
+    tester.getWorkspace().getRelative(PathFragment.create("broken/BUILD"))
+        .createSymbolicLink(PathFragment.create("x"));
+    tester.getWorkspace().getRelative(PathFragment.create("broken/x"))
+        .createSymbolicLink(PathFragment.create("BUILD"));
 
     assertCircularSymlinksDuringTargetParsing("//broken/...");
   }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/pkgcache/TargetPatternEvaluatorIOTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/pkgcache/TargetPatternEvaluatorIOTest.java
index 3b63fbe157..471f884bca 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/pkgcache/TargetPatternEvaluatorIOTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/pkgcache/TargetPatternEvaluatorIOTest.java
@@ -58,7 +58,7 @@ public class TargetPatternEvaluatorIOTest extends AbstractTargetPatternEvaluator
 
   @Override
   protected FileSystem createFileSystem() {
-    return new InMemoryFileSystem(BlazeClock.instance(), new PathFragment(FS_ROOT)) {
+    return new InMemoryFileSystem(BlazeClock.instance(), PathFragment.create(FS_ROOT)) {
       @Override
       public FileStatus stat(Path path, boolean followSymlinks) throws IOException {
         FileStatus defaultResult = super.stat(path, followSymlinks);
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/pkgcache/TargetPatternEvaluatorTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/pkgcache/TargetPatternEvaluatorTest.java
index 33e736a1ec..da003add73 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/pkgcache/TargetPatternEvaluatorTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/pkgcache/TargetPatternEvaluatorTest.java
@@ -143,7 +143,7 @@ public class TargetPatternEvaluatorTest extends AbstractTargetPatternEvaluatorTe
 
   private void invalidate(String file) throws InterruptedException {
     skyframeExecutor.invalidateFilesUnderPathForTesting(reporter,
-        ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(new PathFragment(file)).build(), rootDirectory);
+        ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(PathFragment.create(file)).build(), rootDirectory);
   }
 
   private void invalidate(ModifiedFileSet modifiedFileSet) throws InterruptedException {
@@ -340,9 +340,9 @@ public class TargetPatternEvaluatorTest extends AbstractTargetPatternEvaluatorTe
     scratch.file("nest/nest/BUILD",
         "cc_library(name = 'nested2', srcs = [ ])");
 
-    updateOffset(new PathFragment("nest"));
+    updateOffset(PathFragment.create("nest"));
     assertThat(parseList(":all")).containsExactlyElementsIn(labels("//nest:nested1"));
-    updateOffset(new PathFragment("nest/nest"));
+    updateOffset(PathFragment.create("nest/nest"));
     assertThat(parseList(":all")).containsExactlyElementsIn(labels("//nest/nest:nested2"));
   }
 
@@ -556,7 +556,7 @@ public class TargetPatternEvaluatorTest extends AbstractTargetPatternEvaluatorTe
     scratch.file("x/z/BUILD", "cc_library(name='z')");
     setDeletedPackages(Sets.newHashSet(PackageIdentifier.createInMainRepo("x/y")));
 
-    parser.updateOffset(new PathFragment("x"));
+    parser.updateOffset(PathFragment.create("x"));
     assertEquals(Sets.newHashSet(Label.parseAbsolute("//x/z")),
         targetsToLabels(getFailFast(parser.parseTargetPattern(parsingListener, "...", false))));
   }
@@ -786,7 +786,7 @@ public class TargetPatternEvaluatorTest extends AbstractTargetPatternEvaluatorTe
   public void testSetOffset() throws Exception {
     assertEquals("//foo:foo1", parseIndividualTarget("foo:foo1").toString());
 
-    parser.updateOffset(new PathFragment("foo"));
+    parser.updateOffset(PathFragment.create("foo"));
     assertEquals("//foo:foo1", parseIndividualTarget(":foo1").toString());
   }
 
@@ -970,7 +970,7 @@ public class TargetPatternEvaluatorTest extends AbstractTargetPatternEvaluatorTe
     assertThat(parseList("//h/...")).containsExactlyElementsIn(labels("//h"));
 
     ModifiedFileSet modifiedFileSet = ModifiedFileSet.builder()
-        .modify(new PathFragment("h/i/j/BUILD")).build();
+        .modify(PathFragment.create("h/i/j/BUILD")).build();
     invalidate(modifiedFileSet);
 
     assertThat(parseList("//h/...")).containsExactly(Label.parseAbsolute("//h/i/j:j"),
@@ -991,11 +991,11 @@ public class TargetPatternEvaluatorTest extends AbstractTargetPatternEvaluatorTe
 
     scratch.file("h/i/j/k/BUILD", "sh_library(name='l')");
     ModifiedFileSet modifiedFileSet = ModifiedFileSet.builder()
-        .modify(new PathFragment("h"))
-        .modify(new PathFragment("h/i"))
-        .modify(new PathFragment("h/i/j"))
-        .modify(new PathFragment("h/i/j/k"))
-        .modify(new PathFragment("h/i/j/k/BUILD"))
+        .modify(PathFragment.create("h"))
+        .modify(PathFragment.create("h/i"))
+        .modify(PathFragment.create("h/i/j"))
+        .modify(PathFragment.create("h/i/j/k"))
+        .modify(PathFragment.create("h/i/j/k/BUILD"))
         .build();
     invalidate(modifiedFileSet);
     reporter.addHandler(failFastHandler);
@@ -1007,7 +1007,7 @@ public class TargetPatternEvaluatorTest extends AbstractTargetPatternEvaluatorTe
   public void testBrokenSymlinkRepaired() throws Exception {
     reporter.removeHandler(failFastHandler);
     Path tuv = scratch.dir("t/u/v");
-    tuv.getChild("BUILD").createSymbolicLink(new PathFragment("../../BUILD"));
+    tuv.getChild("BUILD").createSymbolicLink(PathFragment.create("../../BUILD"));
 
     try {
       parseList("//t/...");
@@ -1018,7 +1018,7 @@ public class TargetPatternEvaluatorTest extends AbstractTargetPatternEvaluatorTe
 
     scratch.file("t/BUILD", "sh_library(name='t')");
     ModifiedFileSet modifiedFileSet = ModifiedFileSet.builder()
-        .modify(new PathFragment("t/BUILD"))
+        .modify(PathFragment.create("t/BUILD"))
         .build();
 
     invalidate(modifiedFileSet);
@@ -1033,7 +1033,7 @@ public class TargetPatternEvaluatorTest extends AbstractTargetPatternEvaluatorTe
   public void testInfiniteTreeFromSymlinks() throws Exception {
     reporter.removeHandler(failFastHandler);
     Path ab = scratch.dir("a/b");
-    ab.getChild("c").createSymbolicLink(new PathFragment("../b"));
+    ab.getChild("c").createSymbolicLink(PathFragment.create("../b"));
     scratch.file("a/b/BUILD", "filegroup(name='g')");
     ResolvedTargets<Target> result = parseTargetPatternList(parser, parsingListener,
         ImmutableList.of("//a/b/..."), true);
@@ -1045,7 +1045,7 @@ public class TargetPatternEvaluatorTest extends AbstractTargetPatternEvaluatorTe
   public void testSymlinkCycle() throws Exception {
     reporter.removeHandler(failFastHandler);
     Path ab = scratch.dir("a/b");
-    ab.getChild("c").createSymbolicLink(new PathFragment("c"));
+    ab.getChild("c").createSymbolicLink(PathFragment.create("c"));
     scratch.file("a/b/BUILD", "filegroup(name='g')");
     ResolvedTargets<Target> result = parseTargetPatternList(parser, parsingListener,
         ImmutableList.of("//a/b/..."), true);
@@ -1060,13 +1060,13 @@ public class TargetPatternEvaluatorTest extends AbstractTargetPatternEvaluatorTe
     scratch.dir("from-c");
     scratch.file("from-c/BUILD", "filegroup(name = 'from-c')");
     Path ab = scratch.dir("a/b");
-    ab.getChild("symlink").createSymbolicLink(new PathFragment("../../from-b"));
+    ab.getChild("symlink").createSymbolicLink(PathFragment.create("../../from-b"));
     scratch.dir("a/b/not-a-symlink");
     scratch.file("a/b/not-a-symlink/BUILD", "filegroup(name = 'not-a-symlink')");
     scratch.file(
         "a/b/DONT_FOLLOW_SYMLINKS_WHEN_TRAVERSING_THIS_DIRECTORY_VIA_A_RECURSIVE_TARGET_PATTERN");
     Path ac = scratch.dir("a/c");
-    ac.getChild("symlink").createSymbolicLink(new PathFragment("../../from-c"));
+    ac.getChild("symlink").createSymbolicLink(PathFragment.create("../../from-c"));
     ResolvedTargets<Target> result = parseTargetPatternList(parser, parsingListener,
         ImmutableList.of("//a/..."), true);
     assertThat(targetsToLabels(result.getTargets())).containsExactly(
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/android/AndroidLibraryTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/android/AndroidLibraryTest.java
index e0789e24d1..7e874d4b8a 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/android/AndroidLibraryTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/android/AndroidLibraryTest.java
@@ -1142,21 +1142,21 @@ public class AndroidLibraryTest extends AndroidBuildViewTestCase {
         ImmutableList.of(
             SourceDirectory.fromSourceRoot(
                 rootDirectory.asFragment(),
-                new PathFragment("java/android/assets")),
+                PathFragment.create("java/android/assets")),
             SourceDirectory.fromRoot(
                 targetConfig.getGenfilesDirectory(RepositoryName.MAIN),
-                new PathFragment("java/android/assets"))),
+                PathFragment.create("java/android/assets"))),
         provider.getAssetDirs());
     assertEquals(
         ImmutableList.of(
             SourceDirectory.fromSourceRoot(
                 rootDirectory.asFragment(),
-                new PathFragment("java/android/res"))),
+                PathFragment.create("java/android/res"))),
         provider.getResourceDirs());
 
     assertEquals(ImmutableList.of(SourceDirectory.fromSourceRoot(
         rootDirectory.asFragment(),
-        new PathFragment("java/android")
+        PathFragment.create("java/android")
     )), provider.getIdlImports());
 
     Set<Artifact> artifactClosure = actionsTestUtil().artifactClosureOf(getFilesToBuild(target));
@@ -1193,11 +1193,13 @@ public class AndroidLibraryTest extends AndroidBuildViewTestCase {
         ImmutableList.of(
             SourceDirectory.fromSourceRoot(
                 rootDirectory.asFragment(),
-                new PathFragment("research/handwriting/java/com/google/research/handwriting/assets")
+                PathFragment.create(
+                    "research/handwriting/java/com/google/research/handwriting/assets")
             ),
             SourceDirectory.fromRoot(
                 targetConfig.getGenfilesDirectory(RepositoryName.MAIN),
-                new PathFragment("research/handwriting/java/com/google/research/handwriting/assets")
+                PathFragment.create(
+                    "research/handwriting/java/com/google/research/handwriting/assets")
             )
         ),
         provider.getAssetDirs());
@@ -1205,14 +1207,14 @@ public class AndroidLibraryTest extends AndroidBuildViewTestCase {
         ImmutableList.of(
             SourceDirectory.fromSourceRoot(
                 rootDirectory.asFragment(),
-                new PathFragment("research/handwriting/java/com/google/research/handwriting/res")
+                PathFragment.create("research/handwriting/java/com/google/research/handwriting/res")
             )
         ),
         provider.getResourceDirs());
 
     assertEquals(ImmutableList.of(SourceDirectory.fromSourceRoot(
         rootDirectory.asFragment(),
-        new PathFragment("research/handwriting/java/com/google/research/handwriting")
+        PathFragment.create("research/handwriting/java/com/google/research/handwriting")
     )), provider.getIdlImports());
 
     Set<Artifact> artifactClosure = actionsTestUtil().artifactClosureOf(getFilesToBuild(target));
@@ -1252,17 +1254,17 @@ public class AndroidLibraryTest extends AndroidBuildViewTestCase {
         ImmutableList.of(
             SourceDirectory.fromSourceRoot(
                 rootDirectory.asFragment(),
-                new PathFragment("java/android/assets")),
+                PathFragment.create("java/android/assets")),
             SourceDirectory.fromRoot(
                 targetConfig.getGenfilesDirectory(RepositoryName.MAIN),
-                new PathFragment("java/android/assets"))
+                PathFragment.create("java/android/assets"))
         ),
         provider.getAssetDirs());
     assertEquals(
         ImmutableList.of(
             SourceDirectory.fromSourceRoot(
                 rootDirectory.asFragment(),
-                new PathFragment("java/android/res"))
+                PathFragment.create("java/android/res"))
         ),
         provider.getResourceDirs());
 
@@ -1270,10 +1272,10 @@ public class AndroidLibraryTest extends AndroidBuildViewTestCase {
         ImmutableList.of(
             SourceDirectory.fromSourceRoot(
                 rootDirectory.asFragment(),
-                new PathFragment("java/android")),
+                PathFragment.create("java/android")),
             SourceDirectory.fromRoot(
                 targetConfig.getGenfilesDirectory(RepositoryName.MAIN),
-                new PathFragment("java/android"))
+                PathFragment.create("java/android"))
         ),
         provider.getIdlImports());
 
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/CcCommonTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/CcCommonTest.java
index e0fc844f63..4f5b63e26e 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/CcCommonTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/CcCommonTest.java
@@ -410,7 +410,7 @@ public class CcCommonTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
     String includesRoot = "bang/bang_includes";
     assertThat(foo.getProvider(CppCompilationContext.class).getSystemIncludeDirs())
         .containsAllOf(
-            new PathFragment(includesRoot),
+            PathFragment.create(includesRoot),
             targetConfig.getGenfilesFragment().getRelative(includesRoot));
   }
 
@@ -436,7 +436,7 @@ public class CcCommonTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
     List<PathFragment> expected =
         new ImmutableList.Builder<PathFragment>()
             .addAll(noIncludes.getProvider(CppCompilationContext.class).getSystemIncludeDirs())
-            .add(new PathFragment(includesRoot))
+            .add(PathFragment.create(includesRoot))
             .add(targetConfig.getGenfilesFragment().getRelative(includesRoot))
             .build();
     assertThat(foo.getProvider(CppCompilationContext.class).getSystemIncludeDirs())
@@ -548,7 +548,7 @@ public class CcCommonTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
     getSkyframeExecutor()
         .invalidateFilesUnderPathForTesting(
             reporter,
-            new ModifiedFileSet.Builder().modify(new PathFragment("WORKSPACE")).build(),
+            new ModifiedFileSet.Builder().modify(PathFragment.create("WORKSPACE")).build(),
             rootDirectory);
     FileSystemUtils.createDirectoryAndParents(scratch.resolve("/foo/bar"));
     scratch.file("/foo/WORKSPACE", "workspace(name = 'pkg')");
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/CcLibraryConfiguredTargetTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/CcLibraryConfiguredTargetTest.java
index b80e00ea2f..b87410c97c 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/CcLibraryConfiguredTargetTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/CcLibraryConfiguredTargetTest.java
@@ -58,8 +58,8 @@ import org.junit.runners.JUnit4;
  */
 @RunWith(JUnit4.class)
 public class CcLibraryConfiguredTargetTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
-  private static final PathFragment STL_CPPMAP = new PathFragment("stl.cppmap");
-  private static final PathFragment CROSSTOOL_CPPMAP = new PathFragment("crosstool.cppmap");
+  private static final PathFragment STL_CPPMAP = PathFragment.create("stl.cppmap");
+  private static final PathFragment CROSSTOOL_CPPMAP = PathFragment.create("crosstool.cppmap");
 
   @Before
   public final void createFiles() throws Exception {
@@ -501,7 +501,7 @@ public class CcLibraryConfiguredTargetTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
     List<String> names = new ArrayList<>();
     for (String flag : input) {
       if (CppFileTypes.CPP_MODULE.matches(flag)) {
-        names.add(new PathFragment(flag).getBaseName());
+        names.add(PathFragment.create(flag).getBaseName());
       }
     }
     return names;
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/CcToolchainFeaturesTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/CcToolchainFeaturesTest.java
index 72494019fd..71020d95de 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/CcToolchainFeaturesTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/CcToolchainFeaturesTest.java
@@ -1209,7 +1209,7 @@ public class CcToolchainFeaturesTest {
                 "   implies: 'action-a'",
                 "}")
             .getFeatureConfiguration("activates-action-a");
-    PathFragment crosstoolPath = new PathFragment("crosstool/");
+    PathFragment crosstoolPath = PathFragment.create("crosstool/");
     PathFragment toolPath = configuration.getToolForAction("action-a").getToolPath(crosstoolPath);
     assertThat(toolPath.toString()).isEqualTo("crosstool/toolchain/a");
   }
@@ -1251,7 +1251,7 @@ public class CcToolchainFeaturesTest {
             "  implies: 'action-a'",
             "}");
 
-    PathFragment crosstoolPath = new PathFragment("crosstool/");
+    PathFragment crosstoolPath = PathFragment.create("crosstool/");
 
     FeatureConfiguration featureAConfiguration =
         toolchainFeatures.getFeatureConfiguration("feature-a", "activates-action-a");
@@ -1310,7 +1310,7 @@ public class CcToolchainFeaturesTest {
             "  implies: 'action-a'",
             "}");
 
-    PathFragment crosstoolPath = new PathFragment("crosstool/");
+    PathFragment crosstoolPath = PathFragment.create("crosstool/");
 
     FeatureConfiguration noFeaturesConfiguration =
         toolchainFeatures.getFeatureConfiguration("activates-action-a");
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/CppLinkActionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/CppLinkActionTest.java
index 2889e324a8..1b38da18d5 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/CppLinkActionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/CppLinkActionTest.java
@@ -254,8 +254,8 @@ public class CppLinkActionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
   @Test
   public void testComputeKeyNonStatic() throws Exception {
     final RuleContext ruleContext = createDummyRuleContext();
-    final PathFragment exeOutputPath = new PathFragment("dummyRuleContext/output/path");
-    final PathFragment dynamicOutputPath = new PathFragment("dummyRuleContext/output/path.so");
+    final PathFragment exeOutputPath = PathFragment.create("dummyRuleContext/output/path");
+    final PathFragment dynamicOutputPath = PathFragment.create("dummyRuleContext/output/path.so");
     final Artifact staticOutputFile = getBinArtifactWithNoOwner(exeOutputPath.getPathString());
     final Artifact dynamicOutputFile = getBinArtifactWithNoOwner(dynamicOutputPath.getPathString());
     final Artifact oFile = getSourceArtifact("cc/a.o");
@@ -286,7 +286,7 @@ public class CppLinkActionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
             builder.setNativeDeps((i & 4) == 0);
             builder.setUseTestOnlyFlags((i & 8) == 0);
             builder.setFake((i & 16) == 0);
-            builder.setRuntimeSolibDir((i & 32) == 0 ? null : new PathFragment("so1"));
+            builder.setRuntimeSolibDir((i & 32) == 0 ? null : PathFragment.create("so1"));
             builder.setFeatureConfiguration(featureConfiguration);
 
             return builder.build();
@@ -301,8 +301,8 @@ public class CppLinkActionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
   @Test
   public void testComputeKeyStatic() throws Exception {
     final RuleContext ruleContext = createDummyRuleContext();
-    final PathFragment staticOutputPath = new PathFragment("dummyRuleContext/output/path.a");
-    final PathFragment dynamicOutputPath = new PathFragment("dummyRuleContext/output/path.so");
+    final PathFragment staticOutputPath = PathFragment.create("dummyRuleContext/output/path.a");
+    final PathFragment dynamicOutputPath = PathFragment.create("dummyRuleContext/output/path.so");
     final Artifact staticOutputFile = getBinArtifactWithNoOwner(staticOutputPath.getPathString());
     final Artifact dynamicOutputFile = getBinArtifactWithNoOwner(dynamicOutputPath.getPathString());
     final Artifact oFile = getSourceArtifact("cc/a.o");
@@ -336,11 +336,11 @@ public class CppLinkActionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
   public void testCommandLineSplitting() throws Exception {
     RuleContext ruleContext = createDummyRuleContext();
     Artifact output = getDerivedArtifact(
-        new PathFragment("output/path.xyz"), getTargetConfiguration().getBinDirectory(
+        PathFragment.create("output/path.xyz"), getTargetConfiguration().getBinDirectory(
             RepositoryName.MAIN),
         ActionsTestUtil.NULL_ARTIFACT_OWNER);
     final Artifact outputIfso = getDerivedArtifact(
-        new PathFragment("output/path.ifso"), getTargetConfiguration().getBinDirectory(
+        PathFragment.create("output/path.ifso"), getTargetConfiguration().getBinDirectory(
             RepositoryName.MAIN),
         ActionsTestUtil.NULL_ARTIFACT_OWNER);
     CppLinkActionBuilder builder =
@@ -432,7 +432,7 @@ public class CppLinkActionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
         new CppLinkActionBuilder(
                 ruleContext,
                 new Artifact(
-                    new PathFragment(outputPath),
+                    PathFragment.create(outputPath),
                     getTargetConfiguration()
                         .getBinDirectory(ruleContext.getRule().getRepository())),
                 ruleContext.getConfiguration(),
@@ -451,7 +451,7 @@ public class CppLinkActionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
   }
 
   private CppLinkActionBuilder createLinkBuilder(Link.LinkTargetType type) throws Exception {
-    PathFragment output = new PathFragment("dummyRuleContext/output/path.a");
+    PathFragment output = PathFragment.create("dummyRuleContext/output/path.a");
     return createLinkBuilder(
         type,
         output.getPathString(),
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/CreateIncSymlinkActionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/CreateIncSymlinkActionTest.java
index f6ec5bca7e..07ba4ff058 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/CreateIncSymlinkActionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/CreateIncSymlinkActionTest.java
@@ -43,17 +43,17 @@ public class CreateIncSymlinkActionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
   @Test
   public void testDifferentOrderSameActionKey() throws Exception {
     Root root = Root.asDerivedRoot(rootDirectory, rootDirectory.getRelative("out"));
-    Artifact a = new Artifact(new PathFragment("a"), root);
-    Artifact b = new Artifact(new PathFragment("b"), root);
-    Artifact c = new Artifact(new PathFragment("c"), root);
-    Artifact d = new Artifact(new PathFragment("d"), root);
+    Artifact a = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("a"), root);
+    Artifact b = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("b"), root);
+    Artifact c = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("c"), root);
+    Artifact d = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("d"), root);
     CreateIncSymlinkAction action1 = new CreateIncSymlinkAction(NULL_ACTION_OWNER,
         ImmutableMap.of(a, b, c, d), root.getPath());
     // Can't reuse the artifacts here; that would lead to DuplicateArtifactException.
-    a = new Artifact(new PathFragment("a"), root);
-    b = new Artifact(new PathFragment("b"), root);
-    c = new Artifact(new PathFragment("c"), root);
-    d = new Artifact(new PathFragment("d"), root);
+    a = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("a"), root);
+    b = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("b"), root);
+    c = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("c"), root);
+    d = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("d"), root);
     CreateIncSymlinkAction action2 = new CreateIncSymlinkAction(NULL_ACTION_OWNER,
         ImmutableMap.of(c, d, a, b), root.getPath());
     assertEquals(action1.computeKey(), action2.computeKey());
@@ -62,13 +62,13 @@ public class CreateIncSymlinkActionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
   @Test
   public void testDifferentTargetsDifferentActionKey() throws Exception {
     Root root = Root.asDerivedRoot(rootDirectory, rootDirectory.getRelative("out"));
-    Artifact a = new Artifact(new PathFragment("a"), root);
-    Artifact b = new Artifact(new PathFragment("b"), root);
+    Artifact a = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("a"), root);
+    Artifact b = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("b"), root);
     CreateIncSymlinkAction action1 = new CreateIncSymlinkAction(NULL_ACTION_OWNER,
         ImmutableMap.of(a, b), root.getPath());
     // Can't reuse the artifacts here; that would lead to DuplicateArtifactException.
-    a = new Artifact(new PathFragment("a"), root);
-    b = new Artifact(new PathFragment("c"), root);
+    a = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("a"), root);
+    b = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("c"), root);
     CreateIncSymlinkAction action2 = new CreateIncSymlinkAction(NULL_ACTION_OWNER,
         ImmutableMap.of(a, b), root.getPath());
     assertThat(action2.computeKey()).isNotEqualTo(action1.computeKey());
@@ -77,13 +77,13 @@ public class CreateIncSymlinkActionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
   @Test
   public void testDifferentSymlinksDifferentActionKey() throws Exception {
     Root root = Root.asDerivedRoot(rootDirectory, rootDirectory.getRelative("out"));
-    Artifact a = new Artifact(new PathFragment("a"), root);
-    Artifact b = new Artifact(new PathFragment("b"), root);
+    Artifact a = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("a"), root);
+    Artifact b = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("b"), root);
     CreateIncSymlinkAction action1 = new CreateIncSymlinkAction(NULL_ACTION_OWNER,
         ImmutableMap.of(a, b), root.getPath());
     // Can't reuse the artifacts here; that would lead to DuplicateArtifactException.
-    a = new Artifact(new PathFragment("c"), root);
-    b = new Artifact(new PathFragment("b"), root);
+    a = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("c"), root);
+    b = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("b"), root);
     CreateIncSymlinkAction action2 = new CreateIncSymlinkAction(NULL_ACTION_OWNER,
         ImmutableMap.of(a, b), root.getPath());
     assertThat(action2.computeKey()).isNotEqualTo(action1.computeKey());
@@ -96,7 +96,7 @@ public class CreateIncSymlinkActionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
     Root root = Root.asDerivedRoot(rootDirectory, outputDir);
     Path symlink = rootDirectory.getRelative("out/a");
     Artifact a = new Artifact(symlink, root);
-    Artifact b = new Artifact(new PathFragment("b"), root);
+    Artifact b = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("b"), root);
     CreateIncSymlinkAction action = new CreateIncSymlinkAction(NULL_ACTION_OWNER,
         ImmutableMap.of(a, b), outputDir);
     action.execute(null);
@@ -113,7 +113,7 @@ public class CreateIncSymlinkActionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
     Root root = Root.asDerivedRoot(rootDirectory, outputDir);
     Path symlink = rootDirectory.getRelative("out/subdir/a");
     Artifact a = new Artifact(symlink, root);
-    Artifact b = new Artifact(new PathFragment("b"), root);
+    Artifact b = new Artifact(PathFragment.create("b"), root);
     CreateIncSymlinkAction action =
         new CreateIncSymlinkAction(NULL_ACTION_OWNER, ImmutableMap.of(a, b), outputDir);
     Path extra = rootDirectory.getRelative("out/extra");
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/CrosstoolConfigurationLoaderTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/CrosstoolConfigurationLoaderTest.java
index 1fd7a011ad..30b5af1d95 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/CrosstoolConfigurationLoaderTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/CrosstoolConfigurationLoaderTest.java
@@ -540,7 +540,7 @@ public class CrosstoolConfigurationLoaderTest extends AnalysisTestCase {
             CompilationMode.FASTBUILD,
             LipoMode.OFF,
             LinkingMode.FULLY_STATIC,
-            new PathFragment("hello-world/ld")));
+            PathFragment.create("hello-world/ld")));
     assertEquals(
         Arrays.asList(
             "linker-flag-A-1",
@@ -551,7 +551,7 @@ public class CrosstoolConfigurationLoaderTest extends AnalysisTestCase {
             CompilationMode.DBG,
             LipoMode.OFF,
             LinkingMode.DYNAMIC,
-            new PathFragment("hello-world/ld")));
+            PathFragment.create("hello-world/ld")));
     assertEquals(
         Arrays.asList(
             "linker-flag-A-1",
@@ -562,7 +562,7 @@ public class CrosstoolConfigurationLoaderTest extends AnalysisTestCase {
             CompilationMode.OPT,
             LipoMode.OFF,
             LinkingMode.FULLY_STATIC,
-            new PathFragment("hello-world/ld")));
+            PathFragment.create("hello-world/ld")));
 
     assertEquals(
         Arrays.asList(
@@ -574,7 +574,7 @@ public class CrosstoolConfigurationLoaderTest extends AnalysisTestCase {
             CompilationMode.OPT,
             LipoMode.BINARY,
             LinkingMode.FULLY_STATIC,
-            new PathFragment("hello-world/ld")));
+            PathFragment.create("hello-world/ld")));
 
     assertEquals(
         Arrays.asList("objcopy-embed-flag-A-1", "objcopy-embed-flag-A-2"),
@@ -597,7 +597,7 @@ public class CrosstoolConfigurationLoaderTest extends AnalysisTestCase {
         Arrays.asList(
             getToolPath("/system-include-dir-A-1"), getToolPath("/system-include-dir-A-2")),
         toolchainA.getBuiltInIncludeDirectories());
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment("some"), toolchainA.getSysroot());
+    assertEquals(PathFragment.create("some"), toolchainA.getSysroot());
 
     // Cursory testing of the "B" toolchain only; assume that if none of
     // toolchain B bled through into toolchain A, the reverse also didn't occur. And
@@ -636,21 +636,21 @@ public class CrosstoolConfigurationLoaderTest extends AnalysisTestCase {
             CompilationMode.FASTBUILD,
             LipoMode.OFF,
             LinkingMode.FULLY_STATIC,
-            new PathFragment("hello-world/ld")));
+            PathFragment.create("hello-world/ld")));
     assertEquals(
         Collections.EMPTY_LIST,
         toolchainC.configureLinkerOptions(
             CompilationMode.DBG,
             LipoMode.OFF,
             LinkingMode.DYNAMIC,
-            new PathFragment("hello-world/ld")));
+            PathFragment.create("hello-world/ld")));
     assertEquals(
         Collections.EMPTY_LIST,
         toolchainC.configureLinkerOptions(
             CompilationMode.OPT,
             LipoMode.OFF,
             LinkingMode.FULLY_STATIC,
-            new PathFragment("hello-world/ld")));
+            PathFragment.create("hello-world/ld")));
     assertThat(toolchainC.getObjCopyOptionsForEmbedding()).isEmpty();
     assertThat(toolchainC.getLdOptionsForEmbedding()).isEmpty();
 
@@ -669,8 +669,9 @@ public class CrosstoolConfigurationLoaderTest extends AnalysisTestCase {
     PackageIdentifier packageIdentifier =
         PackageIdentifier.create(
             TestConstants.TOOLS_REPOSITORY,
-            new PathFragment(
-                new PathFragment(TestConstants.TOOLS_REPOSITORY_PATH), new PathFragment(path)));
+            PathFragment.create(
+                PathFragment.create(TestConstants.TOOLS_REPOSITORY_PATH),
+                PathFragment.create(path)));
     return packageIdentifier.getPathUnderExecRoot();
   }
 
@@ -690,7 +691,7 @@ public class CrosstoolConfigurationLoaderTest extends AnalysisTestCase {
             CompilationMode.DBG,
             lipoMode,
             LinkingMode.DYNAMIC,
-            new PathFragment("hello-world/ld")));
+            PathFragment.create("hello-world/ld")));
     assertEquals(
         ImmutableList.<String>of(
             "compiler-flag-B-1",
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/LTOBackendActionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/LTOBackendActionTest.java
index eb196ec627..70284d8003 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/LTOBackendActionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/LTOBackendActionTest.java
@@ -163,10 +163,10 @@ public class LTOBackendActionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
 
             if ((i & 8) == 0) {
               builder.addRunfilesSupplier(
-                  new RunfilesSupplierImpl(new PathFragment("a"), Runfiles.EMPTY, artifactA));
+                  new RunfilesSupplierImpl(PathFragment.create("a"), Runfiles.EMPTY, artifactA));
             } else {
               builder.addRunfilesSupplier(
-                  new RunfilesSupplierImpl(new PathFragment("a"), Runfiles.EMPTY, artifactB));
+                  new RunfilesSupplierImpl(PathFragment.create("a"), Runfiles.EMPTY, artifactB));
             }
 
             if ((i & 16) == 0) {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/java/JavaUtilTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/java/JavaUtilTest.java
index df3b4d5ca7..7992575483 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/java/JavaUtilTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/java/JavaUtilTest.java
@@ -29,13 +29,14 @@ import org.junit.runners.JUnit4;
 public class JavaUtilTest {
 
   private String getRootPath(String path) {
-    return JavaUtil.getJavaRoot(new PathFragment(path)).getPathString();
+    return JavaUtil.getJavaRoot(PathFragment.create(path)).getPathString();
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testGetJavaRoot() {
     assertThat(
-        JavaUtil.getJavaRoot(new PathFragment("path/without/Java/or/Javatests/or/Src/lowercase")))
+        JavaUtil.getJavaRoot(
+            PathFragment.create("path/without/Java/or/Javatests/or/Src/lowercase")))
         .isNull();
     assertThat(getRootPath("java/com/google/common/case")).isEqualTo("java");
     assertThat(getRootPath("javatests/com/google/common/case")).isEqualTo("javatests");
@@ -103,26 +104,26 @@ public class JavaUtilTest {
 
   @Test
   public void testGetJavaPackageName() {
-    assertThat(JavaUtil.getJavaPackageName(new PathFragment("java/com/google/foo/FooModule.java")))
-        .isEqualTo("com.google.foo");
-    assertThat(JavaUtil.getJavaPackageName(new PathFragment("org/foo/FooUtil.java")))
+    assertThat(JavaUtil.getJavaPackageName(
+        PathFragment.create("java/com/google/foo/FooModule.java"))).isEqualTo("com.google.foo");
+    assertThat(JavaUtil.getJavaPackageName(PathFragment.create("org/foo/FooUtil.java")))
         .isEqualTo("org.foo");
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testGetJavaFullClassname() {
     assertThat(
-        JavaUtil.getJavaFullClassname(new PathFragment("java/com/google/foo/FooModule.java")))
+        JavaUtil.getJavaFullClassname(PathFragment.create("java/com/google/foo/FooModule.java")))
         .isEqualTo("com.google.foo.FooModule.java");
-    assertThat(JavaUtil.getJavaFullClassname(new PathFragment("org/foo/FooUtil.java"))).isNull();
+    assertThat(JavaUtil.getJavaFullClassname(PathFragment.create("org/foo/FooUtil.java"))).isNull();
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testGetJavaPath() {
     assertThat(
         JavaUtil.getJavaPath(
-            new PathFragment("java/com/google/foo/FooModule.java")).getPathString())
+            PathFragment.create("java/com/google/foo/FooModule.java")).getPathString())
         .isEqualTo("com/google/foo/FooModule.java");
-    assertThat(JavaUtil.getJavaPath(new PathFragment("org/foo/FooUtil.java"))).isNull();
+    assertThat(JavaUtil.getJavaPath(PathFragment.create("org/foo/FooUtil.java"))).isNull();
   }
 }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/repository/RepositoryFunctionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/repository/RepositoryFunctionTest.java
index 629a418e2c..c9e1afacc0 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/repository/RepositoryFunctionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/repository/RepositoryFunctionTest.java
@@ -79,7 +79,7 @@ public class RepositoryFunctionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
         "    name = 'w',",
         "    path = '/a/b/c',",
         ")");
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment("/a/b/c"),
+    assertEquals(PathFragment.create("/a/b/c"),
         TestingRepositoryFunction.getTargetPath(rule, rootDirectory));
   }
 
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/runtime/ExperimentalStateTrackerTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/runtime/ExperimentalStateTrackerTest.java
index ef482198a7..a8ecc550b4 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/runtime/ExperimentalStateTrackerTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/runtime/ExperimentalStateTrackerTest.java
@@ -58,7 +58,7 @@ import org.mockito.Mockito;
 public class ExperimentalStateTrackerTest extends FoundationTestCase {
 
   private Action mockAction(String progressMessage, String primaryOutput) {
-    Path path = outputBase.getRelative(new PathFragment(primaryOutput));
+    Path path = outputBase.getRelative(PathFragment.create(primaryOutput));
     Artifact artifact = new Artifact(path, Root.asSourceRoot(path));
 
     Action action = Mockito.mock(Action.class);
@@ -424,7 +424,7 @@ public class ExperimentalStateTrackerTest extends FoundationTestCase {
     String primaryOutput = "some/path/to/a/file";
 
     ManualClock clock = new ManualClock();
-    Path path = outputBase.getRelative(new PathFragment(primaryOutput));
+    Path path = outputBase.getRelative(PathFragment.create(primaryOutput));
     Artifact artifact = new Artifact(path, Root.asSourceRoot(path));
     ActionExecutionMetadata actionMetadata = Mockito.mock(ActionExecutionMetadata.class);
     when(actionMetadata.getOwner()).thenReturn(Mockito.mock(ActionOwner.class));
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/sandbox/LinuxSandboxedStrategyTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/sandbox/LinuxSandboxedStrategyTest.java
index 3db7b36b54..4fac68d1b4 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/sandbox/LinuxSandboxedStrategyTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/sandbox/LinuxSandboxedStrategyTest.java
@@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ public class LinuxSandboxedStrategyTest extends SandboxTestCase {
 
   @Test
   public void testParseManifestFile() throws Exception {
-    PathFragment targetDir = new PathFragment("runfiles");
+    PathFragment targetDir = PathFragment.create("runfiles");
 
     Path testFile = workspaceDir.getRelative("testfile");
     FileSystemUtils.createEmptyFile(testFile);
@@ -58,15 +58,15 @@ public class LinuxSandboxedStrategyTest extends SandboxTestCase {
         fileSystem, mounts, targetDir, manifestFile.getPathFile(), false, "");
 
     Map<PathFragment, Path> expected = new HashMap<>();
-    expected.put(new PathFragment("runfiles/x/testfile"), testFile);
-    expected.put(new PathFragment("runfiles/x/emptyfile"), null);
+    expected.put(PathFragment.create("runfiles/x/testfile"), testFile);
+    expected.put(PathFragment.create("runfiles/x/emptyfile"), null);
 
     assertThat(mounts).isEqualTo(expected);
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testParseFilesetManifestFile() throws Exception {
-    PathFragment targetDir = new PathFragment("fileset");
+    PathFragment targetDir = PathFragment.create("fileset");
 
     Path testFile = workspaceDir.getRelative("testfile");
     FileSystemUtils.createEmptyFile(testFile);
@@ -81,6 +81,7 @@ public class LinuxSandboxedStrategyTest extends SandboxTestCase {
     SpawnHelpers.parseManifestFile(
         fileSystem, mounts, targetDir, manifestFile.getPathFile(), true, "workspace");
 
-    assertThat(mounts).isEqualTo(ImmutableMap.of(new PathFragment("fileset/x/testfile"), testFile));
+    assertThat(mounts).isEqualTo(
+        ImmutableMap.of(PathFragment.create("fileset/x/testfile"), testFile));
   }
 }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/sandbox/SymlinkedExecRootTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/sandbox/SymlinkedExecRootTest.java
index 24d1ca12e1..4ad84077dc 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/sandbox/SymlinkedExecRootTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/sandbox/SymlinkedExecRootTest.java
@@ -52,8 +52,8 @@ public class SymlinkedExecRootTest extends SandboxTestCase {
 
     SymlinkedExecRoot symlinkedExecRoot = new SymlinkedExecRoot(execRoot);
     symlinkedExecRoot.createFileSystem(
-        ImmutableMap.of(new PathFragment("such/input.txt"), helloTxt),
-        ImmutableSet.of(new PathFragment("very/output.txt")),
+        ImmutableMap.of(PathFragment.create("such/input.txt"), helloTxt),
+        ImmutableSet.of(PathFragment.create("very/output.txt")),
         ImmutableSet.of(execRoot.getRelative("wow/writable")));
 
     assertThat(execRoot.getRelative("such/input.txt").isSymbolicLink()).isTrue();
@@ -69,8 +69,8 @@ public class SymlinkedExecRootTest extends SandboxTestCase {
 
     SymlinkedExecRoot symlinkedExecRoot = new SymlinkedExecRoot(execRoot);
     symlinkedExecRoot.createFileSystem(
-        ImmutableMap.of(new PathFragment("such/input.txt"), helloTxt),
-        ImmutableSet.of(new PathFragment("very/output.txt")),
+        ImmutableMap.of(PathFragment.create("such/input.txt"), helloTxt),
+        ImmutableSet.of(PathFragment.create("very/output.txt")),
         ImmutableSet.of(execRoot.getRelative("wow/writable")));
 
     // Pretend to do some work inside the execRoot.
@@ -80,8 +80,8 @@ public class SymlinkedExecRootTest extends SandboxTestCase {
 
     // Reuse the same execRoot.
     symlinkedExecRoot.createFileSystem(
-        ImmutableMap.of(new PathFragment("such/input.txt"), helloTxt),
-        ImmutableSet.of(new PathFragment("very/output.txt")),
+        ImmutableMap.of(PathFragment.create("such/input.txt"), helloTxt),
+        ImmutableSet.of(PathFragment.create("very/output.txt")),
         ImmutableSet.of(execRoot.getRelative("wow/writable")));
 
     assertThat(execRoot.getRelative("such/input.txt").exists()).isTrue();
@@ -108,8 +108,8 @@ public class SymlinkedExecRootTest extends SandboxTestCase {
         ImmutableSet.<Path>of());
 
     FileSystemUtils.createEmptyFile(outputFile);
-    outputLink.createSymbolicLink(new PathFragment("output.txt"));
-    outputDangling.createSymbolicLink(new PathFragment("doesnotexist"));
+    outputLink.createSymbolicLink(PathFragment.create("output.txt"));
+    outputDangling.createSymbolicLink(PathFragment.create("doesnotexist"));
     outputDir.createDirectory();
     FileSystemUtils.createEmptyFile(outputDir.getRelative("test.txt"));
 
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionTemplateExpansionFunctionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionTemplateExpansionFunctionTest.java
index d24647af26..954a3d5cdb 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionTemplateExpansionFunctionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionTemplateExpansionFunctionTest.java
@@ -121,12 +121,12 @@ public final class ActionTemplateExpansionFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCas
     OutputPathMapper mapper = new OutputPathMapper() {
       @Override
       public PathFragment parentRelativeOutputPath(TreeFileArtifact inputTreeFileArtifact) {
-        return new PathFragment("conflict_path");
+        return PathFragment.create("conflict_path");
       }
     };
     SpawnActionTemplate spawnActionTemplate =
         new SpawnActionTemplate.Builder(inputTreeArtifact, outputTreeArtifact)
-            .setExecutable(new PathFragment("/bin/cp"))
+            .setExecutable(PathFragment.create("/bin/cp"))
             .setCommandLineTemplate(CustomCommandLine.builder().build())
             .setOutputPathMapper(mapper)
             .build(ActionsTestUtil.NULL_ACTION_OWNER);
@@ -152,10 +152,10 @@ public final class ActionTemplateExpansionFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCas
         PathFragment path;
         switch (i) {
           case 0:
-            path = new PathFragment("path_prefix");
+            path = PathFragment.create("path_prefix");
             break;
           case 1:
-            path = new PathFragment("path_prefix/conflict");
+            path = PathFragment.create("path_prefix/conflict");
             break;
           default:
             path = inputTreeFileArtifact.getParentRelativePath();
@@ -167,7 +167,7 @@ public final class ActionTemplateExpansionFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCas
     };
     SpawnActionTemplate spawnActionTemplate =
         new SpawnActionTemplate.Builder(inputTreeArtifact, outputTreeArtifact)
-            .setExecutable(new PathFragment("/bin/cp"))
+            .setExecutable(PathFragment.create("/bin/cp"))
             .setCommandLineTemplate(CustomCommandLine.builder().build())
             .setOutputPathMapper(mapper)
             .build(ActionsTestUtil.NULL_ACTION_OWNER);
@@ -199,7 +199,7 @@ public final class ActionTemplateExpansionFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCas
   }
 
   private Artifact createTreeArtifact(String path) {
-    PathFragment execPath = new PathFragment("out").getRelative(path);
+    PathFragment execPath = PathFragment.create("out").getRelative(path);
     Path fullPath = rootDirectory.getRelative(execPath);
     return new SpecialArtifact(
         fullPath,
@@ -216,7 +216,7 @@ public final class ActionTemplateExpansionFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCas
 
     for (String childRelativePath : childRelativePaths) {
       TreeFileArtifact treeFileArtifact = ActionInputHelper.treeFileArtifact(
-          treeArtifact, new PathFragment(childRelativePath));
+          treeArtifact, PathFragment.create(childRelativePath));
       scratch.file(treeFileArtifact.getPath().toString(), childRelativePath);
       // We do not care about the FileArtifactValues in this test.
       treeFileArtifactMap.put(treeFileArtifact, FileArtifactValue.create(treeFileArtifact));
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ArtifactFunctionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ArtifactFunctionTest.java
index c729fc6b6a..21afd0a256 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ArtifactFunctionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ArtifactFunctionTest.java
@@ -389,11 +389,11 @@ public class ArtifactFunctionTest extends ArtifactFunctionTestCase {
   }
 
   private Artifact createSourceArtifact(String path) {
-    return new Artifact(new PathFragment(path), Root.asSourceRoot(root));
+    return new Artifact(PathFragment.create(path), Root.asSourceRoot(root));
   }
 
   private Artifact createDerivedArtifact(String path) {
-    PathFragment execPath = new PathFragment("out").getRelative(path);
+    PathFragment execPath = PathFragment.create("out").getRelative(path);
     Path fullPath = root.getRelative(execPath);
     Artifact output =
         new Artifact(
@@ -416,7 +416,7 @@ public class ArtifactFunctionTest extends ArtifactFunctionTestCase {
   }
 
   private Artifact createDerivedTreeArtifactOnly(String path) {
-    PathFragment execPath = new PathFragment("out").getRelative(path);
+    PathFragment execPath = PathFragment.create("out").getRelative(path);
     Path fullPath = root.getRelative(execPath);
     return new SpecialArtifact(
         fullPath,
@@ -429,7 +429,7 @@ public class ArtifactFunctionTest extends ArtifactFunctionTestCase {
   private TreeFileArtifact createFakeTreeFileArtifact(Artifact treeArtifact,
       String parentRelativePath, String content) throws Exception {
     TreeFileArtifact treeFileArtifact = ActionInputHelper.treeFileArtifact(
-        treeArtifact, new PathFragment(parentRelativePath));
+        treeArtifact, PathFragment.create(parentRelativePath));
     Path path = treeFileArtifact.getPath();
     FileSystemUtils.createDirectoryAndParents(path.getParentDirectory());
     writeFile(path, content);
@@ -499,9 +499,9 @@ public class ArtifactFunctionTest extends ArtifactFunctionTestCase {
       try {
         if (output.isTreeArtifact()) {
           TreeFileArtifact treeFileArtifact1 = ActionInputHelper.treeFileArtifact(
-              output, new PathFragment("child1"));
+              output, PathFragment.create("child1"));
           TreeFileArtifact treeFileArtifact2 = ActionInputHelper.treeFileArtifact(
-              output, new PathFragment("child2"));
+              output, PathFragment.create("child2"));
           TreeArtifactValue treeArtifactValue = TreeArtifactValue.create(ImmutableMap.of(
               treeFileArtifact1, FileArtifactValue.create(treeFileArtifact1),
               treeFileArtifact2, FileArtifactValue.create(treeFileArtifact2)));
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/DiffAwarenessManagerTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/DiffAwarenessManagerTest.java
index e2aebba89e..2a6f85eb05 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/DiffAwarenessManagerTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/DiffAwarenessManagerTest.java
@@ -94,9 +94,9 @@ public class DiffAwarenessManagerTest {
   @Test
   public void testHandlesUnprocessedDiffs() throws Exception {
     Path pathEntry = root.getRelative("pathEntry");
-    ModifiedFileSet diff1 = ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(new PathFragment("file1")).build();
-    ModifiedFileSet diff2 = ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(new PathFragment("file2")).build();
-    ModifiedFileSet diff3 = ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(new PathFragment("file3")).build();
+    ModifiedFileSet diff1 = ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(PathFragment.create("file1")).build();
+    ModifiedFileSet diff2 = ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(PathFragment.create("file2")).build();
+    ModifiedFileSet diff3 = ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(PathFragment.create("file3")).build();
     DiffAwarenessStub diffAwareness =
         new DiffAwarenessStub(ImmutableList.of(diff1, diff2, diff3, DiffAwarenessStub.BROKEN_DIFF));
     DiffAwarenessFactoryStub factory = new DiffAwarenessFactoryStub();
@@ -134,12 +134,12 @@ public class DiffAwarenessManagerTest {
         new DiffAwarenessStub(ImmutableList.<ModifiedFileSet>of(), 1);
     factory1.inject(pathEntry, diffAwareness1);
     DiffAwarenessFactoryStub factory2 = new DiffAwarenessFactoryStub();
-    ModifiedFileSet diff2 = ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(new PathFragment("file2")).build();
+    ModifiedFileSet diff2 = ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(PathFragment.create("file2")).build();
     DiffAwarenessStub diffAwareness2 =
         new DiffAwarenessStub(ImmutableList.of(diff2, DiffAwarenessStub.BROKEN_DIFF));
     factory2.inject(pathEntry, diffAwareness2);
     DiffAwarenessFactoryStub factory3 = new DiffAwarenessFactoryStub();
-    ModifiedFileSet diff3 = ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(new PathFragment("file3")).build();
+    ModifiedFileSet diff3 = ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(PathFragment.create("file3")).build();
     DiffAwarenessStub diffAwareness3 = new DiffAwarenessStub(ImmutableList.of(diff3));
     factory3.inject(pathEntry, diffAwareness3);
     DiffAwarenessManager manager =
@@ -217,7 +217,7 @@ public class DiffAwarenessManagerTest {
   private static class DiffAwarenessStub implements DiffAwareness {
 
     public static final ModifiedFileSet BROKEN_DIFF =
-        ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(new PathFragment("special broken marker")).build();
+        ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(PathFragment.create("special broken marker")).build();
 
     private boolean closed = false;
     private int curSequenceNum = 0;
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/FileFunctionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/FileFunctionTest.java
index 5eb13b326d..68f0386bd6 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/FileFunctionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/FileFunctionTest.java
@@ -303,7 +303,7 @@ public class FileFunctionTest {
             rootedPath("a"),
             rootedPath(""),
             RootedPath.toRootedPath(fs.getRootDirectory(), PathFragment.EMPTY_FRAGMENT),
-            RootedPath.toRootedPath(fs.getRootDirectory(), new PathFragment("outside")));
+            RootedPath.toRootedPath(fs.getRootDirectory(), PathFragment.create("outside")));
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -320,7 +320,7 @@ public class FileFunctionTest {
             rootedPath("a"),
             rootedPath(""),
             RootedPath.toRootedPath(fs.getRootDirectory(), PathFragment.EMPTY_FRAGMENT),
-            RootedPath.toRootedPath(fs.getRootDirectory(), new PathFragment("absolute")));
+            RootedPath.toRootedPath(fs.getRootDirectory(), PathFragment.create("absolute")));
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -341,10 +341,10 @@ public class FileFunctionTest {
             rootedPath("a"),
             rootedPath(""),
             RootedPath.toRootedPath(root, PathFragment.EMPTY_FRAGMENT),
-            RootedPath.toRootedPath(root, new PathFragment("output_base")),
-            RootedPath.toRootedPath(root, new PathFragment("output_base/external")),
-            RootedPath.toRootedPath(root, new PathFragment("output_base/external/a")),
-            RootedPath.toRootedPath(root, new PathFragment("output_base/external/a/b")));
+            RootedPath.toRootedPath(root, PathFragment.create("output_base")),
+            RootedPath.toRootedPath(root, PathFragment.create("output_base/external")),
+            RootedPath.toRootedPath(root, PathFragment.create("output_base/external/a")),
+            RootedPath.toRootedPath(root, PathFragment.create("output_base/external/a/b")));
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -1584,12 +1584,12 @@ public class FileFunctionTest {
   private Path symlink(String link, String target) throws Exception {
     Path path = path(link);
     FileSystemUtils.createDirectoryAndParents(path.getParentDirectory());
-    path.createSymbolicLink(new PathFragment(target));
+    path.createSymbolicLink(PathFragment.create(target));
     return path;
   }
 
   private Path path(String rootRelativePath) {
-    return pkgRoot.getRelative(new PathFragment(rootRelativePath));
+    return pkgRoot.getRelative(PathFragment.create(rootRelativePath));
   }
 
   private RootedPath rootedPath(String pathString) {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/FileSymlinkCycleUniquenessFunctionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/FileSymlinkCycleUniquenessFunctionTest.java
index 49414a95ea..aadce0f35e 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/FileSymlinkCycleUniquenessFunctionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/FileSymlinkCycleUniquenessFunctionTest.java
@@ -30,9 +30,9 @@ public class FileSymlinkCycleUniquenessFunctionTest {
   @Test
   public void testHashCodeAndEqualsContract() throws Exception {
     Path root = new InMemoryFileSystem().getRootDirectory().getRelative("root");
-    RootedPath p1 = RootedPath.toRootedPath(root, new PathFragment("p1"));
-    RootedPath p2 = RootedPath.toRootedPath(root, new PathFragment("p2"));
-    RootedPath p3 = RootedPath.toRootedPath(root, new PathFragment("p3"));
+    RootedPath p1 = RootedPath.toRootedPath(root, PathFragment.create("p1"));
+    RootedPath p2 = RootedPath.toRootedPath(root, PathFragment.create("p2"));
+    RootedPath p3 = RootedPath.toRootedPath(root, PathFragment.create("p3"));
     ImmutableList<RootedPath> cycleA1 = ImmutableList.of(p1);
     ImmutableList<RootedPath> cycleB1 = ImmutableList.of(p2);
     ImmutableList<RootedPath> cycleC1 = ImmutableList.of(p1, p2, p3);
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/FilesetEntryFunctionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/FilesetEntryFunctionTest.java
index 40d6d4e1fe..949f09b168 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/FilesetEntryFunctionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/FilesetEntryFunctionTest.java
@@ -121,7 +121,7 @@ public final class FilesetEntryFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
   }
 
   private Artifact getSourceArtifact(String path) throws Exception {
-    return new Artifact(new PathFragment(path), Root.asSourceRoot(rootDirectory));
+    return new Artifact(PathFragment.create(path), Root.asSourceRoot(rootDirectory));
   }
 
   private Artifact createSourceArtifact(String path) throws Exception {
@@ -177,15 +177,15 @@ public final class FilesetEntryFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
   }
 
   private static FilesetOutputSymlink symlink(String from, Artifact to) {
-    return new FilesetOutputSymlink(new PathFragment(from), to.getPath().asFragment());
+    return new FilesetOutputSymlink(PathFragment.create(from), to.getPath().asFragment());
   }
 
   private static FilesetOutputSymlink symlink(String from, String to) {
-    return new FilesetOutputSymlink(new PathFragment(from), new PathFragment(to));
+    return new FilesetOutputSymlink(PathFragment.create(from), PathFragment.create(to));
   }
 
   private static FilesetOutputSymlink symlink(String from, RootedPath to) {
-    return new FilesetOutputSymlink(new PathFragment(from), to.asPath().asFragment());
+    return new FilesetOutputSymlink(PathFragment.create(from), to.asPath().asFragment());
   }
 
   private void assertSymlinksInOrder(
@@ -215,7 +215,7 @@ public final class FilesetEntryFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
         FilesetTraversalParamsFactory.fileTraversal(
             /*ownerLabel=*/ label("//foo"),
             /*fileToTraverse=*/ file,
-            /*destPath=*/ new PathFragment("output-name"),
+            PathFragment.create("output-name"),
             /*symlinkBehaviorMode=*/ SymlinkBehavior.COPY,
             /*pkgBoundaryMode=*/ DONT_CROSS);
     assertSymlinksInOrder(params, symlink("output-name", file));
@@ -224,13 +224,13 @@ public final class FilesetEntryFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
   private void assertFileTraversalForFileSymlink(SymlinkBehavior symlinks) throws Exception {
     Artifact file = createSourceArtifact("foo/file.real");
     Artifact symlink = getSourceArtifact("foo/file.sym");
-    symlink.getPath().createSymbolicLink(new PathFragment("file.real"));
+    symlink.getPath().createSymbolicLink(PathFragment.create("file.real"));
 
     FilesetTraversalParams params =
         FilesetTraversalParamsFactory.fileTraversal(
             /*ownerLabel=*/ label("//foo"),
             /*fileToTraverse=*/ symlink,
-            /*destPath=*/ new PathFragment("output-name"),
+            PathFragment.create("output-name"),
             /*symlinkBehaviorMode=*/ symlinks,
             /*pkgBoundaryMode=*/ DONT_CROSS);
     switch (symlinks) {
@@ -265,7 +265,7 @@ public final class FilesetEntryFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
         FilesetTraversalParamsFactory.fileTraversal(
             /*ownerLabel=*/ label("//foo"),
             /*fileToTraverse=*/ dir,
-            /*destPath=*/ new PathFragment("output-name"),
+            PathFragment.create("output-name"),
             /*symlinkBehaviorMode=*/ SymlinkBehavior.COPY,
             /*pkgBoundaryMode=*/ DONT_CROSS);
     assertSymlinksInOrder(
@@ -277,13 +277,13 @@ public final class FilesetEntryFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
     Artifact symlink = getSourceArtifact("foo/dir_sym");
     createFile(childOf(dir, "file.a"), "hello");
     createFile(childOf(dir, "sub/file.b"), "world");
-    symlink.getPath().createSymbolicLink(new PathFragment("dir_real"));
+    symlink.getPath().createSymbolicLink(PathFragment.create("dir_real"));
 
     FilesetTraversalParams params =
         FilesetTraversalParamsFactory.fileTraversal(
             /*ownerLabel=*/ label("//foo"),
             /*fileToTraverse=*/ symlink,
-            /*destPath=*/ new PathFragment("output-name"),
+            PathFragment.create("output-name"),
             /*symlinkBehaviorMode=*/ symlinks,
             /*pkgBoundaryMode=*/ DONT_CROSS);
     switch (symlinks) {
@@ -316,7 +316,7 @@ public final class FilesetEntryFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
     RootedPath buildFile = createFile(childOf(dir, "subpkg/BUILD"), "blah");
     RootedPath fileB = createFile(childOf(dir, "subpkg/file.b"), "blah");
     fileAsym.asPath().getParentDirectory().createDirectory();
-    fileAsym.asPath().createSymbolicLink(new PathFragment("../file.a"));
+    fileAsym.asPath().createSymbolicLink(PathFragment.create("../file.a"));
 
     FilesetOutputSymlink outA = symlink("output-name/file.a", childOf(dir, "file.a"));
     FilesetOutputSymlink outAsym = null;
@@ -337,7 +337,7 @@ public final class FilesetEntryFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
         FilesetTraversalParamsFactory.recursiveTraversalOfDirectory(
             /*ownerLabel=*/ label("//foo"),
             /*directoryToTraverse=*/ dir,
-            /*destPath=*/ new PathFragment("output-name"),
+            PathFragment.create("output-name"),
             /*excludes=*/ null,
             /*symlinkBehaviorMode=*/ symlinks,
             /*pkgBoundaryMode=*/ pkgBoundaryMode);
@@ -399,8 +399,8 @@ public final class FilesetEntryFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
     createFile(childOf(dir, "subpkg/BUILD"), "blah");
     createFile(childOf(dir, "subpkg/file.b"), "blah");
     fileAsym.asPath().getParentDirectory().createDirectory();
-    fileAsym.asPath().createSymbolicLink(new PathFragment("../file.a"));
-    symlink.getPath().createSymbolicLink(new PathFragment("dir_real"));
+    fileAsym.asPath().createSymbolicLink(PathFragment.create("../file.a"));
+    symlink.getPath().createSymbolicLink(PathFragment.create("dir_real"));
 
     FilesetOutputSymlink outA = symlink("output-name/file.a", childOf(symlink, "file.a"));
     FilesetOutputSymlink outASym = null;
@@ -423,7 +423,7 @@ public final class FilesetEntryFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
         FilesetTraversalParamsFactory.recursiveTraversalOfDirectory(
             /*ownerLabel=*/ label("//foo"),
             /*directoryToTraverse=*/ symlink,
-            /*destPath=*/ new PathFragment("output-name"),
+            PathFragment.create("output-name"),
             /*excludes=*/ null,
             /*symlinkBehaviorMode=*/ symlinks,
             /*pkgBoundaryMode=*/ pkgBoundaryMode);
@@ -488,8 +488,8 @@ public final class FilesetEntryFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
     RootedPath fileB = createFile(siblingOf(subpkgBuildFile, "file.b"), "blah");
 
     scratch.dir(fileAsym.asPath().getParentDirectory().getPathString());
-    fileAsym.asPath().createSymbolicLink(new PathFragment("../file.a"));
-    subpkgSymlink.getPath().createSymbolicLink(new PathFragment("subpkg"));
+    fileAsym.asPath().createSymbolicLink(PathFragment.create("../file.a"));
+    subpkgSymlink.getPath().createSymbolicLink(PathFragment.create("subpkg"));
 
     FilesetOutputSymlink outBuild = symlink("output-name/BUILD", buildFile);
     FilesetOutputSymlink outA = symlink("output-name/file.a", fileA);
@@ -514,7 +514,7 @@ public final class FilesetEntryFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
         FilesetTraversalParamsFactory.recursiveTraversalOfPackage(
             /*ownerLabel=*/ label("//foo"),
             /*directoryToTraverse=*/ buildFile,
-            /*destPath=*/ new PathFragment("output-name"),
+            PathFragment.create("output-name"),
             /*excludes=*/ null,
             /*symlinkBehaviorMode=*/ symlinks,
             /*pkgBoundaryMode=*/ pkgBoundaryMode);
@@ -576,14 +576,14 @@ public final class FilesetEntryFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
         FilesetTraversalParamsFactory.fileTraversal(
             /*ownerLabel=*/ label("//foo"),
             /*fileToTraverse=*/ path,
-            /*destPath=*/ new PathFragment("inner-out"),
+            PathFragment.create("inner-out"),
             /*symlinkBehaviorMode=*/ SymlinkBehavior.COPY,
             /*pkgBoundaryMode=*/ DONT_CROSS);
     FilesetTraversalParams outer =
         FilesetTraversalParamsFactory.nestedTraversal(
             /*ownerLabel=*/ label("//foo:bar"),
             /*nested=*/ inner,
-            /*destDir=*/ new PathFragment("outer-out"),
+            PathFragment.create("outer-out"),
             /*excludes=*/ null);
     assertSymlinksInOrder(outer, symlink("outer-out/inner-out", rootedPath(path)));
   }
@@ -598,7 +598,7 @@ public final class FilesetEntryFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
         FilesetTraversalParamsFactory.recursiveTraversalOfDirectory(
             /*ownerLabel=*/ label("//foo"),
             /*directoryToTraverse=*/ dir,
-            /*destPath=*/ new PathFragment(useInnerDir ? "inner-dir" : ""),
+            PathFragment.create(useInnerDir ? "inner-dir" : ""),
             /*excludes=*/ null,
             /*symlinkBehaviorMode=*/ SymlinkBehavior.COPY,
             /*pkgBoundaryMode=*/ DONT_CROSS);
@@ -606,7 +606,7 @@ public final class FilesetEntryFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
         FilesetTraversalParamsFactory.nestedTraversal(
             /*ownerLabel=*/ label("//foo"),
             /*nested=*/ inner,
-            /*destDir=*/ new PathFragment("outer-dir"),
+            PathFragment.create("outer-dir"),
             ImmutableSet.<String>of("file.a", "sub/file.c"));
 
     if (useInnerDir) {
@@ -639,14 +639,14 @@ public final class FilesetEntryFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
   public void testFileTraversalForDanglingSymlink() throws Exception {
     Artifact linkName = getSourceArtifact("foo/dangling.sym");
     RootedPath linkTarget = createFile(siblingOf(linkName, "target.file"), "blah");
-    linkName.getPath().createSymbolicLink(new PathFragment("target.file"));
+    linkName.getPath().createSymbolicLink(PathFragment.create("target.file"));
     linkTarget.asPath().delete();
 
     FilesetTraversalParams params =
         FilesetTraversalParamsFactory.fileTraversal(
             /*ownerLabel=*/ label("//foo"),
             /*fileToTraverse=*/ linkName,
-            /*destPath=*/ new PathFragment("output-name"),
+            PathFragment.create("output-name"),
             /*symlinkBehaviorMode=*/ SymlinkBehavior.COPY,
             /*pkgBoundaryMode=*/ DONT_CROSS);
     assertSymlinksInOrder(params); // expect empty results
@@ -659,14 +659,14 @@ public final class FilesetEntryFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
     Artifact linkName = getSourceArtifact("foo/file.sym");
     Artifact linkTarget = getSourceArtifact("foo/file.actual");
     createFile(linkTarget);
-    linkName.getPath().createSymbolicLink(new PathFragment("file.actual"));
+    linkName.getPath().createSymbolicLink(PathFragment.create("file.actual"));
 
     // Ensure the symlink and its target would be included if they weren't explicitly excluded.
     FilesetTraversalParams params =
         FilesetTraversalParamsFactory.recursiveTraversalOfPackage(
             /* ownerLabel */ label("//foo"),
             /* buildFile */ buildFile,
-            /* destPath */ new PathFragment("output-name"),
+            PathFragment.create("output-name"),
             /* excludes */ ImmutableSet.<String>of(),
             /* symlinkBehaviorMode */ symlinkBehavior,
             /* pkgBoundaryMode */ PackageBoundaryMode.DONT_CROSS);
@@ -686,7 +686,7 @@ public final class FilesetEntryFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
         FilesetTraversalParamsFactory.recursiveTraversalOfPackage(
             /* ownerLabel */ label("//foo"),
             /* buildFile */ buildFile,
-            /* destPath */ new PathFragment("output-name"),
+            PathFragment.create("output-name"),
             /* excludes */ ImmutableSet.of("file.sym"),
             /* symlinkBehaviorMode */ symlinkBehavior,
             /* pkgBoundaryMode */ PackageBoundaryMode.DONT_CROSS);
@@ -710,7 +710,7 @@ public final class FilesetEntryFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
         FilesetTraversalParamsFactory.fileTraversal(
             /*ownerLabel=*/ label("//foo"),
             /*fileToTraverse=*/ path,
-            /*destPath=*/ new PathFragment("output-name"),
+            PathFragment.create("output-name"),
             /*symlinkBehaviorMode=*/ SymlinkBehavior.COPY,
             /*pkgBoundaryMode=*/ DONT_CROSS);
     assertSymlinksInOrder(params); // expect empty results
@@ -720,14 +720,14 @@ public final class FilesetEntryFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
   public void testRecursiveTraversalForDanglingSymlink() throws Exception {
     Artifact linkName = getSourceArtifact("foo/dangling.sym");
     RootedPath linkTarget = createFile(siblingOf(linkName, "target.file"), "blah");
-    linkName.getPath().createSymbolicLink(new PathFragment("target.file"));
+    linkName.getPath().createSymbolicLink(PathFragment.create("target.file"));
     linkTarget.asPath().delete();
 
     FilesetTraversalParams params =
         FilesetTraversalParamsFactory.recursiveTraversalOfDirectory(
             /*ownerLabel=*/ label("//foo"),
             /*directoryToTraverse=*/ linkName,
-            /*destPath=*/ new PathFragment("output-name"),
+            PathFragment.create("output-name"),
             /*excludes=*/ null,
             /*symlinkBehaviorMode=*/ SymlinkBehavior.COPY,
             /*pkgBoundaryMode=*/ DONT_CROSS);
@@ -742,7 +742,7 @@ public final class FilesetEntryFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
         FilesetTraversalParamsFactory.recursiveTraversalOfDirectory(
             /*ownerLabel=*/ label("//foo"),
             /*directoryToTraverse=*/ path,
-            /*destPath=*/ new PathFragment("output-name"),
+            PathFragment.create("output-name"),
             /*excludes=*/ null,
             /*symlinkBehaviorMode=*/ SymlinkBehavior.COPY,
             /*pkgBoundaryMode=*/ DONT_CROSS);
@@ -853,7 +853,7 @@ public final class FilesetEntryFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
         return FilesetTraversalParamsFactory.fileTraversal(
             label((String) kwArgs.get("ownerLabel")),
             getSourceArtifact((String) kwArgs.get("fileToTraverse")),
-            new PathFragment((String) kwArgs.get("destPath")),
+            PathFragment.create((String) kwArgs.get("destPath")),
             ((SymlinkBehavior) kwArgs.get("symlinkBehaviorMode")),
             (PackageBoundaryMode) kwArgs.get("pkgBoundaryMode"));
       }
@@ -881,7 +881,7 @@ public final class FilesetEntryFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
         return FilesetTraversalParamsFactory.recursiveTraversalOfDirectory(
             label((String) kwArgs.get("ownerLabel")),
             getSourceArtifact((String) kwArgs.get("directoryToTraverse")),
-            new PathFragment((String) kwArgs.get("destPath")),
+            PathFragment.create((String) kwArgs.get("destPath")),
             (Set<String>) kwArgs.get("excludes"),
             ((SymlinkBehavior) kwArgs.get("symlinkBehaviorMode")),
             (PackageBoundaryMode) kwArgs.get("pkgBoundaryMode"));
@@ -910,7 +910,7 @@ public final class FilesetEntryFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
         return FilesetTraversalParamsFactory.recursiveTraversalOfPackage(
             label((String) kwArgs.get("ownerLabel")),
             getSourceArtifact((String) kwArgs.get("buildFile")),
-            new PathFragment((String) kwArgs.get("destPath")),
+            PathFragment.create((String) kwArgs.get("destPath")),
             (Set<String>) kwArgs.get("excludes"),
             ((SymlinkBehavior) kwArgs.get("symlinkBehaviorMode")),
             (PackageBoundaryMode) kwArgs.get("pkgBoundaryMode"));
@@ -924,7 +924,7 @@ public final class FilesetEntryFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
         FilesetTraversalParamsFactory.fileTraversal(
             /*ownerLabel=*/ label("//blah"),
             /*fileToTraverse=*/ getSourceArtifact("blah/file.a"),
-            /*destPath=*/ new PathFragment("output-name"),
+            PathFragment.create("output-name"),
             /*symlinkBehaviorMode=*/ SymlinkBehavior.COPY,
             /*pkgBoundaryMode=*/ DONT_CROSS);
 
@@ -932,7 +932,7 @@ public final class FilesetEntryFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
         FilesetTraversalParamsFactory.fileTraversal(
             /*ownerLabel=*/ label("//blah"),
             /*fileToTraverse=*/ getSourceArtifact("meow/file.b"),
-            /*destPath=*/ new PathFragment("output-name"),
+            PathFragment.create("output-name"),
             /*symlinkBehaviorMode=*/ SymlinkBehavior.COPY,
             /*pkgBoundaryMode=*/ DONT_CROSS);
 
@@ -949,7 +949,7 @@ public final class FilesetEntryFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
         return FilesetTraversalParamsFactory.nestedTraversal(
             label((String) kwArgs.get("ownerLabel")),
             (FilesetTraversalParams) kwArgs.get("nested"),
-            new PathFragment((String) kwArgs.get("destDir")),
+            PathFragment.create((String) kwArgs.get("destDir")),
             (Set<String>) kwArgs.get("excludes"));
       }
     }.doTest();
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/FilesystemValueCheckerTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/FilesystemValueCheckerTest.java
index 0dba1d9db9..2c92706a7a 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/FilesystemValueCheckerTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/FilesystemValueCheckerTest.java
@@ -155,7 +155,7 @@ public class FilesystemValueCheckerTest {
     assertEmptyDiff(getDirtyFilesystemKeys(evaluator, checker));
 
     SkyKey skyKey = FileStateValue.key(
-        RootedPath.toRootedPath(fs.getRootDirectory(), new PathFragment("foo")));
+        RootedPath.toRootedPath(fs.getRootDirectory(), PathFragment.create("foo")));
     EvaluationResult<SkyValue> result =
         driver.evaluate(
             ImmutableList.of(skyKey),
@@ -206,13 +206,13 @@ public class FilesystemValueCheckerTest {
     FileSystemUtils.ensureSymbolicLink(sym1, path);
     FileSystemUtils.ensureSymbolicLink(sym2, path);
     SkyKey fooKey =
-        FileValue.key(RootedPath.toRootedPath(fs.getRootDirectory(), new PathFragment("foo")));
+        FileValue.key(RootedPath.toRootedPath(fs.getRootDirectory(), PathFragment.create("foo")));
     RootedPath symlinkRootedPath =
-        RootedPath.toRootedPath(fs.getRootDirectory(), new PathFragment("bar"));
+        RootedPath.toRootedPath(fs.getRootDirectory(), PathFragment.create("bar"));
     SkyKey symlinkKey = FileValue.key(symlinkRootedPath);
     SkyKey symlinkFileStateKey = FileStateValue.key(symlinkRootedPath);
     RootedPath sym1RootedPath =
-        RootedPath.toRootedPath(fs.getRootDirectory(), new PathFragment("sym1"));
+        RootedPath.toRootedPath(fs.getRootDirectory(), PathFragment.create("sym1"));
     SkyKey sym1FileStateKey = FileStateValue.key(sym1RootedPath);
     Iterable<SkyKey> allKeys = ImmutableList.of(symlinkKey, fooKey);
 
@@ -274,10 +274,10 @@ public class FilesystemValueCheckerTest {
 
     SkyKey key1 =
         FileStateValue.key(
-            RootedPath.toRootedPath(fs.getRootDirectory(), new PathFragment("foo1")));
+            RootedPath.toRootedPath(fs.getRootDirectory(), PathFragment.create("foo1")));
     SkyKey key2 =
         FileStateValue.key(
-            RootedPath.toRootedPath(fs.getRootDirectory(), new PathFragment("foo2")));
+            RootedPath.toRootedPath(fs.getRootDirectory(), PathFragment.create("foo2")));
     Iterable<SkyKey> skyKeys = ImmutableList.of(key1, key2);
     EvaluationResult<SkyValue> result =
         driver.evaluate(
@@ -304,10 +304,11 @@ public class FilesystemValueCheckerTest {
   public void testFileWithIOExceptionNotConsideredDirty() throws Exception {
     Path path = fs.getPath("/testroot/foo");
     path.getParentDirectory().createDirectory();
-    path.createSymbolicLink(new PathFragment("bar"));
+    path.createSymbolicLink(PathFragment.create("bar"));
 
     fs.readlinkThrowsIoException = true;
-    SkyKey fileKey = FileStateValue.key(RootedPath.toRootedPath(pkgRoot, new PathFragment("foo")));
+    SkyKey fileKey = FileStateValue.key(
+        RootedPath.toRootedPath(pkgRoot, PathFragment.create("foo")));
     EvaluationResult<SkyValue> result =
         driver.evaluate(
             ImmutableList.of(fileKey),
@@ -763,8 +764,8 @@ public class FilesystemValueCheckerTest {
 
   @Test
   public void testPropagatesRuntimeExceptions() throws Exception {
-    Collection<SkyKey> values =
-        ImmutableList.of(FileValue.key(RootedPath.toRootedPath(pkgRoot, new PathFragment("foo"))));
+    Collection<SkyKey> values = ImmutableList.of(
+        FileValue.key(RootedPath.toRootedPath(pkgRoot, PathFragment.create("foo"))));
     driver.evaluate(
         values, false, SkyframeExecutor.DEFAULT_THREAD_COUNT, NullEventHandler.INSTANCE);
     FilesystemValueChecker checker = new FilesystemValueChecker(null, null);
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/LocalRepositoryLookupFunctionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/LocalRepositoryLookupFunctionTest.java
index 564e4665f5..a2d51781c3 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/LocalRepositoryLookupFunctionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/LocalRepositoryLookupFunctionTest.java
@@ -143,7 +143,7 @@ public class LocalRepositoryLookupFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
     scratch.file("some/path/BUILD");
 
     LocalRepositoryLookupValue repositoryLookupValue =
-        lookupDirectory(RootedPath.toRootedPath(rootDirectory, new PathFragment("some/path")));
+        lookupDirectory(RootedPath.toRootedPath(rootDirectory, PathFragment.create("some/path")));
     assertThat(repositoryLookupValue).isNotNull();
     assertThat(repositoryLookupValue.getRepository()).isEqualTo(RepositoryName.MAIN);
   }
@@ -155,7 +155,7 @@ public class LocalRepositoryLookupFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
     scratch.file("local/repo/BUILD");
 
     LocalRepositoryLookupValue repositoryLookupValue =
-        lookupDirectory(RootedPath.toRootedPath(rootDirectory, new PathFragment("local/repo")));
+        lookupDirectory(RootedPath.toRootedPath(rootDirectory, PathFragment.create("local/repo")));
     assertThat(repositoryLookupValue).isNotNull();
     assertThat(repositoryLookupValue.getRepository().getName()).isEqualTo("@local");
   }
@@ -169,7 +169,7 @@ public class LocalRepositoryLookupFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
 
     LocalRepositoryLookupValue repositoryLookupValue =
         lookupDirectory(
-            RootedPath.toRootedPath(rootDirectory, new PathFragment("local/repo/sub/package")));
+            RootedPath.toRootedPath(rootDirectory, PathFragment.create("local/repo/sub/package")));
     assertThat(repositoryLookupValue).isNotNull();
     assertThat(repositoryLookupValue.getRepository().getName()).isEqualTo("@local");
   }
@@ -181,7 +181,7 @@ public class LocalRepositoryLookupFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
     scratch.file("local/repo/BUILD");
 
     LocalRepositoryLookupValue repositoryLookupValue =
-        lookupDirectory(RootedPath.toRootedPath(rootDirectory, new PathFragment("local/repo")));
+        lookupDirectory(RootedPath.toRootedPath(rootDirectory, PathFragment.create("local/repo")));
     assertThat(repositoryLookupValue).isNotNull();
     assertThat(repositoryLookupValue.getRepository()).isEqualTo(RepositoryName.MAIN);
   }
@@ -198,7 +198,7 @@ public class LocalRepositoryLookupFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
     scratch.file("local/repo/BUILD");
 
     SkyKey localRepositoryKey =
-        createKey(RootedPath.toRootedPath(rootDirectory, new PathFragment("local/repo")));
+        createKey(RootedPath.toRootedPath(rootDirectory, PathFragment.create("local/repo")));
     EvaluationResult<LocalRepositoryLookupValue> result = lookupDirectory(localRepositoryKey);
 
     assertThatEvaluationResult(result)
@@ -218,7 +218,7 @@ public class LocalRepositoryLookupFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
     scratch.file("local/repo/BUILD");
 
     LocalRepositoryLookupValue repositoryLookupValue =
-        lookupDirectory(RootedPath.toRootedPath(rootDirectory, new PathFragment("local/repo")));
+        lookupDirectory(RootedPath.toRootedPath(rootDirectory, PathFragment.create("local/repo")));
     assertThat(repositoryLookupValue).isNotNull();
     // In this case, the repository should be MAIN as we can't find any local_repository rules.
     assertThat(repositoryLookupValue.getRepository()).isEqualTo(RepositoryName.MAIN);
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/PackageFunctionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/PackageFunctionTest.java
index 98bedeb0c4..758c41b28b 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/PackageFunctionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/PackageFunctionTest.java
@@ -124,7 +124,7 @@ public class PackageFunctionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
 
     preparePackageLoading(rootDirectory);
 
-    SkyKey pkgLookupKey = PackageLookupValue.key(new PathFragment("foo"));
+    SkyKey pkgLookupKey = PackageLookupValue.key(PathFragment.create("foo"));
     EvaluationResult<PackageLookupValue> result = SkyframeExecutorTestUtils.evaluate(
         getSkyframeExecutor(), pkgLookupKey, /*keepGoing=*/false, reporter);
     assertFalse(result.hasError());
@@ -336,7 +336,7 @@ public class PackageFunctionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
     scratch.overwriteFile("bar/a",
         "subinclude('//baz:c')");
     getSkyframeExecutor().invalidateFilesUnderPathForTesting(reporter,
-        ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(new PathFragment("bar/a")).build(), rootDirectory);
+        ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(PathFragment.create("bar/a")).build(), rootDirectory);
 
     value = validPackage(skyKey);
     assertThat(value.getPackage().getSubincludeLabels()).containsExactly(
@@ -368,7 +368,7 @@ public class PackageFunctionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
     getSkyframeExecutor()
         .invalidateFilesUnderPathForTesting(
             reporter,
-            ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(new PathFragment("foo/d.txt")).build(),
+            ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(PathFragment.create("foo/d.txt")).build(),
             rootDirectory);
     value = validPackage(skyKey);
     assertThat(
@@ -399,7 +399,7 @@ public class PackageFunctionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
     getSkyframeExecutor()
         .invalidateFilesUnderPathForTesting(
             reporter,
-            ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(new PathFragment("foo/BUILD")).build(),
+            ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(PathFragment.create("foo/BUILD")).build(),
             rootDirectory);
     assertSrcs(validPackage(skyKey), "foo", "//foo:a.config", "//foo:b.txt");
     scratch.overwriteFile(
@@ -407,7 +407,7 @@ public class PackageFunctionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
     getSkyframeExecutor()
         .invalidateFilesUnderPathForTesting(
             reporter,
-            ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(new PathFragment("foo/BUILD")).build(),
+            ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(PathFragment.create("foo/BUILD")).build(),
             rootDirectory);
     assertSrcs(validPackage(skyKey), "foo", "//foo:a.config", "//foo:b.txt");
     getSkyframeExecutor().resetEvaluator();
@@ -461,7 +461,7 @@ public class PackageFunctionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
     getSkyframeExecutor()
         .invalidateFilesUnderPathForTesting(
             reporter,
-            ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(new PathFragment("foo/BUILD")).build(),
+            ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(PathFragment.create("foo/BUILD")).build(),
             rootDirectory);
     PackageValue fooValue2 = validPackage(fooKey);
     assertThat(fooValue2).isNotEqualTo(fooValue);
@@ -503,7 +503,7 @@ public class PackageFunctionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
     getSkyframeExecutor()
         .invalidateFilesUnderPathForTesting(
             reporter,
-            ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(new PathFragment("foo/irrelevant")).build(),
+            ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(PathFragment.create("foo/irrelevant")).build(),
             rootDirectory);
     assertThat(validPackage(skyKey)).isSameAs(value);
   }
@@ -521,7 +521,7 @@ public class PackageFunctionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
     getSkyframeExecutor()
         .invalidateFilesUnderPathForTesting(
             reporter,
-            ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(new PathFragment("foo/irrelevant")).build(),
+            ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(PathFragment.create("foo/irrelevant")).build(),
             rootDirectory);
     assertThat(validPackage(skyKey)).isSameAs(value);
   }
@@ -574,8 +574,10 @@ public class PackageFunctionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
     scratch.overwriteFile("bar/ext.bzl",
         "load('/qux/ext', 'c')",
         "a = c");
-    getSkyframeExecutor().invalidateFilesUnderPathForTesting(reporter,
-        ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(new PathFragment("bar/ext.bzl")).build(), rootDirectory);
+    getSkyframeExecutor().invalidateFilesUnderPathForTesting(
+        reporter,
+        ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(PathFragment.create("bar/ext.bzl")).build(),
+        rootDirectory);
 
     value = validPackage(skyKey);
     assertThat(value.getPackage().getSkylarkFileDependencies()).containsExactly(
@@ -655,7 +657,7 @@ public class PackageFunctionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
   public void testSymlinkCycleWithSkylarkExtension() throws Exception {
     reporter.removeHandler(failFastHandler);
     Path extensionFilePath = scratch.resolve("/workspace/test/skylark/extension.bzl");
-    FileSystemUtils.ensureSymbolicLink(extensionFilePath, new PathFragment("extension.bzl"));
+    FileSystemUtils.ensureSymbolicLink(extensionFilePath, PathFragment.create("extension.bzl"));
     scratch.file("test/skylark/BUILD",
         "load('/test/skylark/extension', 'a')",
         "genrule(name = gr,",
@@ -715,7 +717,7 @@ public class PackageFunctionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
                 com.google.devtools.build.lib.skyframe.FileStateValue.key(
                     RootedPath.toRootedPath(
                         workspacePath.getParentDirectory(),
-                        new PathFragment(workspacePath.getBaseName())))));
+                        PathFragment.create(workspacePath.getBaseName())))));
 
     reporter.removeHandler(failFastHandler);
     EvaluationResult<PackageValue> result =
@@ -751,7 +753,7 @@ public class PackageFunctionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
         "#some-irrelevant-comment");
 
     getSkyframeExecutor().invalidateFilesUnderPathForTesting(reporter,
-        ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(new PathFragment("foo/BUILD")).build(), rootDirectory);
+        ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(PathFragment.create("foo/BUILD")).build(), rootDirectory);
 
     value = validPackage(skyKey);
     assertFalse(value.getPackage().containsErrors());
@@ -767,7 +769,7 @@ public class PackageFunctionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
 
     scratch.file("foo/nope");
     getSkyframeExecutor().invalidateFilesUnderPathForTesting(reporter,
-        ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(new PathFragment("foo/nope")).build(), rootDirectory);
+        ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(PathFragment.create("foo/nope")).build(), rootDirectory);
 
     PackageValue newValue = validPackage(skyKey);
     assertFalse(newValue.getPackage().containsErrors());
@@ -803,7 +805,7 @@ public class PackageFunctionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
         "[sh_library(name = x + '-matched') for x in glob(['**'], exclude_directories = 0)]",
         "#some-irrelevant-comment");
     getSkyframeExecutor().invalidateFilesUnderPathForTesting(reporter,
-        ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(new PathFragment("foo/BUILD")).build(), rootDirectory);
+        ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(PathFragment.create("foo/BUILD")).build(), rootDirectory);
 
     value = validPackage(skyKey);
     assertFalse(value.getPackage().containsErrors());
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/PackageLookupFunctionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/PackageLookupFunctionTest.java
index 0c4c1d4728..6ad7725f4c 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/PackageLookupFunctionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/PackageLookupFunctionTest.java
@@ -199,7 +199,7 @@ public abstract class PackageLookupFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
     scratch.file("blacklisted/subdir/BUILD");
     scratch.file("blacklisted/BUILD");
     PrecomputedValue.BLACKLISTED_PACKAGE_PREFIXES_FILE.set(differencer,
-        new PathFragment("config/blacklisted.txt"));
+        PathFragment.create("config/blacklisted.txt"));
     Path blacklist = scratch.file("config/blacklisted.txt", "blacklisted");
 
     ImmutableSet<String> pkgs = ImmutableSet.of("blacklisted/subdir", "blacklisted");
@@ -213,7 +213,7 @@ public abstract class PackageLookupFunctionTest extends FoundationTestCase {
     scratch.overwriteFile("config/blacklisted.txt", "not_blacklisted");
     RootedPath rootedBlacklist = RootedPath.toRootedPath(
         blacklist.getParentDirectory().getParentDirectory(),
-        new PathFragment("config/blacklisted.txt"));
+        PathFragment.create("config/blacklisted.txt"));
     differencer.invalidate(ImmutableSet.of(FileStateValue.key(rootedBlacklist)));
     for (String pkg : pkgs) {
       PackageLookupValue packageLookupValue = lookupPackage(pkg);
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/PrepareDepsOfPatternsFunctionSmartNegationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/PrepareDepsOfPatternsFunctionSmartNegationTest.java
index 50c3a2c046..8786b42af3 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/PrepareDepsOfPatternsFunctionSmartNegationTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/PrepareDepsOfPatternsFunctionSmartNegationTest.java
@@ -90,7 +90,7 @@ public class PrepareDepsOfPatternsFunctionSmartNegationTest extends BuildViewTes
 
     // and a blacklist for the malformed package,
     getSkyframeExecutor().setBlacklistedPackagePrefixesFile(
-        new PathFragment("config/blacklist.txt"));
+        PathFragment.create("config/blacklist.txt"));
     scratch.file("config/blacklist.txt", "foo/foo");
 
     assertSkipsFoo(patternSequence);
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/PrepareDepsOfTargetsUnderDirectoryFunctionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/PrepareDepsOfTargetsUnderDirectoryFunctionTest.java
index b790f86780..1602f4a62a 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/PrepareDepsOfTargetsUnderDirectoryFunctionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/PrepareDepsOfTargetsUnderDirectoryFunctionTest.java
@@ -97,7 +97,7 @@ public class PrepareDepsOfTargetsUnderDirectoryFunctionTest extends BuildViewTes
     createPackages();
 
     // When package "a" is evaluated,
-    SkyKey key = createPrepDepsKey(rootDirectory, new PathFragment("a"));
+    SkyKey key = createPrepDepsKey(rootDirectory, PathFragment.create("a"));
     EvaluationResult<?> evaluationResult = getEvaluationResult(key);
     WalkableGraph graph = Preconditions.checkNotNull(evaluationResult.getWalkableGraph());
 
@@ -122,7 +122,7 @@ public class PrepareDepsOfTargetsUnderDirectoryFunctionTest extends BuildViewTes
     createPackages();
 
     // When package "a" is evaluated under a test-only filtering policy,
-    SkyKey key = createPrepDepsKey(rootDirectory, new PathFragment("a"),
+    SkyKey key = createPrepDepsKey(rootDirectory, PathFragment.create("a"),
         ImmutableSet.<PathFragment>of(), FilteringPolicies.FILTER_TESTS);
     EvaluationResult<?> evaluationResult = getEvaluationResult(key);
     WalkableGraph graph = Preconditions.checkNotNull(evaluationResult.getWalkableGraph());
@@ -157,12 +157,12 @@ public class PrepareDepsOfTargetsUnderDirectoryFunctionTest extends BuildViewTes
 
     // When the top package is evaluated via PrepareDepsOfTargetsUnderDirectoryValue with "a/b"
     // excluded,
-    PathFragment excludedPathFragment = new PathFragment("a/b");
-    SkyKey key = createPrepDepsKey(rootDirectory, new PathFragment("a"),
+    PathFragment excludedPathFragment = PathFragment.create("a/b");
+    SkyKey key = createPrepDepsKey(rootDirectory, PathFragment.create("a"),
         ImmutableSet.of(excludedPathFragment));
     SkyKey collectkey =
         createCollectPackagesKey(
-            rootDirectory, new PathFragment("a"), ImmutableSet.of(excludedPathFragment));
+            rootDirectory, PathFragment.create("a"), ImmutableSet.of(excludedPathFragment));
     EvaluationResult<?> evaluationResult = getEvaluationResult(key, collectkey);
     CollectPackagesUnderDirectoryValue value =
         (CollectPackagesUnderDirectoryValue)
@@ -171,7 +171,7 @@ public class PrepareDepsOfTargetsUnderDirectoryFunctionTest extends BuildViewTes
                 .getValue(
                     createCollectPackagesKey(
                         rootDirectory,
-                        new PathFragment("a"),
+                        PathFragment.create("a"),
                         ImmutableSet.of(excludedPathFragment)));
 
     // Then the value reports that "a" is a package,
@@ -181,7 +181,7 @@ public class PrepareDepsOfTargetsUnderDirectoryFunctionTest extends BuildViewTes
     RootedPath onlySubdir =
         Iterables.getOnlyElement(
             value.getSubdirectoryTransitivelyContainsPackagesOrErrors().keySet());
-    assertThat(onlySubdir.getRelativePath()).isEqualTo(new PathFragment("a/c"));
+    assertThat(onlySubdir.getRelativePath()).isEqualTo(PathFragment.create("a/c"));
 
     // And the "a/c" subdirectory reports a package under it.
     assertThat(value.getSubdirectoryTransitivelyContainsPackagesOrErrors().get(onlySubdir))
@@ -199,7 +199,7 @@ public class PrepareDepsOfTargetsUnderDirectoryFunctionTest extends BuildViewTes
     assertTrue(
         exists(
             createPrepDepsKey(
-                rootDirectory, new PathFragment("a/c"), ImmutableSet.<PathFragment>of()),
+                rootDirectory, PathFragment.create("a/c"), ImmutableSet.<PathFragment>of()),
             graph));
   }
 
@@ -212,17 +212,18 @@ public class PrepareDepsOfTargetsUnderDirectoryFunctionTest extends BuildViewTes
     scratch.file("a/b/d/helloworld");
 
     // When the top package is evaluated for recursive package values, and "a/b/c" is excluded,
-    ImmutableSet<PathFragment> excludedPaths = ImmutableSet.of(new PathFragment("a/b/c"));
-    SkyKey key = createPrepDepsKey(rootDirectory, new PathFragment("a"), excludedPaths);
+    ImmutableSet<PathFragment> excludedPaths = ImmutableSet.of(PathFragment.create("a/b/c"));
+    SkyKey key = createPrepDepsKey(rootDirectory, PathFragment.create("a"), excludedPaths);
     SkyKey collectKey =
-        createCollectPackagesKey(rootDirectory, new PathFragment("a"), excludedPaths);
+        createCollectPackagesKey(rootDirectory, PathFragment.create("a"), excludedPaths);
     EvaluationResult<?> evaluationResult = getEvaluationResult(key, collectKey);
     CollectPackagesUnderDirectoryValue value =
         (CollectPackagesUnderDirectoryValue)
             evaluationResult
                 .getWalkableGraph()
                 .getValue(
-                    createCollectPackagesKey(rootDirectory, new PathFragment("a"), excludedPaths));
+                    createCollectPackagesKey(
+                        rootDirectory, PathFragment.create("a"), excludedPaths));
 
     // Then the value reports that "a" is a package,
     assertThat(value.isDirectoryPackage()).isTrue();
@@ -231,7 +232,7 @@ public class PrepareDepsOfTargetsUnderDirectoryFunctionTest extends BuildViewTes
     RootedPath onlySubdir =
         Iterables.getOnlyElement(
             value.getSubdirectoryTransitivelyContainsPackagesOrErrors().keySet());
-    assertThat(onlySubdir.getRelativePath()).isEqualTo(new PathFragment("a/b"));
+    assertThat(onlySubdir.getRelativePath()).isEqualTo(PathFragment.create("a/b"));
 
     // And the "a/b" subdirectory does not report a package under it (because it got excluded).
     assertThat(value.getSubdirectoryTransitivelyContainsPackagesOrErrors().get(onlySubdir))
@@ -240,7 +241,8 @@ public class PrepareDepsOfTargetsUnderDirectoryFunctionTest extends BuildViewTes
     // Also, the computation graph contains a cached value for "a/b" with "a/b/c" excluded, because
     // "a/b/c" does live underneath "a/b".
     WalkableGraph graph = Preconditions.checkNotNull(evaluationResult.getWalkableGraph());
-    SkyKey abKey = createCollectPackagesKey(rootDirectory, new PathFragment("a/b"), excludedPaths);
+    SkyKey abKey = createCollectPackagesKey(
+        rootDirectory, PathFragment.create("a/b"), excludedPaths);
     assertThat(exists(abKey, graph)).isTrue();
     CollectPackagesUnderDirectoryValue abValue =
         (CollectPackagesUnderDirectoryValue) Preconditions.checkNotNull(graph.getValue(abKey));
@@ -252,7 +254,7 @@ public class PrepareDepsOfTargetsUnderDirectoryFunctionTest extends BuildViewTes
     RootedPath abd =
         Iterables.getOnlyElement(
             abValue.getSubdirectoryTransitivelyContainsPackagesOrErrors().keySet());
-    assertThat(abd.getRelativePath()).isEqualTo(new PathFragment("a/b/d"));
+    assertThat(abd.getRelativePath()).isEqualTo(PathFragment.create("a/b/d"));
 
     // And no package is under "a/b/d".
     assertThat(abValue.getSubdirectoryTransitivelyContainsPackagesOrErrors().get(abd)).isFalse();
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/RecursiveFilesystemTraversalFunctionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/RecursiveFilesystemTraversalFunctionTest.java
index a45d7b1e77..229cbcfb48 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/RecursiveFilesystemTraversalFunctionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/RecursiveFilesystemTraversalFunctionTest.java
@@ -137,16 +137,16 @@ public final class RecursiveFilesystemTraversalFunctionTest extends FoundationTe
   }
 
   private Artifact sourceArtifact(String path) {
-    return new Artifact(new PathFragment(path), Root.asSourceRoot(rootDirectory));
+    return new Artifact(PathFragment.create(path), Root.asSourceRoot(rootDirectory));
   }
 
   private Artifact sourceArtifactUnderPackagePath(String path, String packagePath) {
     return new Artifact(
-        new PathFragment(path), Root.asSourceRoot(rootDirectory.getRelative(packagePath)));
+        PathFragment.create(path), Root.asSourceRoot(rootDirectory.getRelative(packagePath)));
   }
 
   private Artifact derivedArtifact(String path) {
-    PathFragment execPath = new PathFragment("out").getRelative(path);
+    PathFragment execPath = PathFragment.create("out").getRelative(path);
     Path fullPath = rootDirectory.getRelative(execPath);
     Artifact output =
         new Artifact(
@@ -161,7 +161,8 @@ public final class RecursiveFilesystemTraversalFunctionTest extends FoundationTe
   }
 
   private RootedPath rootedPath(String path, String packagePath) {
-    return RootedPath.toRootedPath(rootDirectory.getRelative(packagePath), new PathFragment(path));
+    return RootedPath.toRootedPath(
+        rootDirectory.getRelative(packagePath), PathFragment.create(path));
   }
 
   private static RootedPath childOf(Artifact artifact, String relative) {
@@ -376,7 +377,7 @@ public final class RecursiveFilesystemTraversalFunctionTest extends FoundationTe
   public void testTraversalOfSymlinkToFile() throws Exception {
     Artifact linkNameArtifact = sourceArtifact("foo/baz/qux.sym");
     Artifact linkTargetArtifact = sourceArtifact("foo/bar/baz.txt");
-    PathFragment linkValue = new PathFragment("../bar/baz.txt");
+    PathFragment linkValue = PathFragment.create("../bar/baz.txt");
     TraversalRequest traversalRoot = fileLikeRoot(linkNameArtifact, DONT_CROSS);
     createFile(linkTargetArtifact);
     scratch.dir(linkNameArtifact.getExecPath().getParentDirectory().getPathString());
@@ -407,8 +408,8 @@ public final class RecursiveFilesystemTraversalFunctionTest extends FoundationTe
     RootedPath fileA = createFile(rootedPath(sourceArtifact("a/file.a")));
     RootedPath directLink = rootedPath(directLinkArtifact);
     RootedPath transitiveLink = rootedPath(transitiveLinkArtifact);
-    PathFragment directLinkPath = new PathFragment("../a/file.a");
-    PathFragment transitiveLinkPath = new PathFragment("../direct/file.sym");
+    PathFragment directLinkPath = PathFragment.create("../a/file.a");
+    PathFragment transitiveLinkPath = PathFragment.create("../direct/file.sym");
 
     parentOf(directLink).asPath().createDirectory();
     parentOf(transitiveLink).asPath().createDirectory();
@@ -500,8 +501,8 @@ public final class RecursiveFilesystemTraversalFunctionTest extends FoundationTe
     RootedPath fileA = createFile(rootedPath(sourceArtifact("a/file.a")));
     RootedPath directLink = rootedPath(directLinkArtifact);
     RootedPath transitiveLink = rootedPath(transitiveLinkArtifact);
-    PathFragment directLinkPath = new PathFragment("../a");
-    PathFragment transitiveLinkPath = new PathFragment("../direct/dir.sym");
+    PathFragment directLinkPath = PathFragment.create("../a");
+    PathFragment transitiveLinkPath = PathFragment.create("../direct/dir.sym");
 
     parentOf(directLink).asPath().createDirectory();
     parentOf(transitiveLink).asPath().createDirectory();
@@ -538,7 +539,7 @@ public final class RecursiveFilesystemTraversalFunctionTest extends FoundationTe
     Artifact linkNameArtifact = sourceArtifact("link/foo.sym");
     Artifact linkTargetArtifact = sourceArtifact("dir");
     RootedPath linkName = rootedPath(linkNameArtifact);
-    PathFragment linkValue = new PathFragment("../dir");
+    PathFragment linkValue = PathFragment.create("../dir");
     RootedPath file1 = createFile(childOf(linkTargetArtifact, "file.1"));
     createFile(childOf(linkTargetArtifact, "sub/file.2"));
     scratch.dir(parentOf(linkName).asPath().getPathString());
@@ -595,7 +596,7 @@ public final class RecursiveFilesystemTraversalFunctionTest extends FoundationTe
   public void testTraversalOfDanglingSymlink() throws Exception {
     Artifact linkArtifact = sourceArtifact("a/dangling.sym");
     RootedPath link = rootedPath(linkArtifact);
-    PathFragment linkTarget = new PathFragment("non_existent");
+    PathFragment linkTarget = PathFragment.create("non_existent");
     parentOf(link).asPath().createDirectory();
     link.asPath().createSymbolicLink(linkTarget);
     traverseAndAssertFiles(
@@ -607,7 +608,7 @@ public final class RecursiveFilesystemTraversalFunctionTest extends FoundationTe
     Artifact dirArtifact = sourceArtifact("a");
     RootedPath file = createFile(childOf(dirArtifact, "file.txt"));
     RootedPath link = rootedPath(sourceArtifact("a/dangling.sym"));
-    PathFragment linkTarget = new PathFragment("non_existent");
+    PathFragment linkTarget = PathFragment.create("non_existent");
     parentOf(link).asPath().createDirectory();
     link.asPath().createSymbolicLink(linkTarget);
     traverseAndAssertFiles(
@@ -727,7 +728,7 @@ public final class RecursiveFilesystemTraversalFunctionTest extends FoundationTe
     // Create a relative symlink pp1://a/b.sym -> b/. It will be resolved to the subdirectory
     // pp1://a/b, even though a package definition pp2://a/b exists.
     RootedPath pp1aBsym = siblingOf(pp1aFileA, "b.sym");
-    pp1aBsym.asPath().createSymbolicLink(new PathFragment("b"));
+    pp1aBsym.asPath().createSymbolicLink(PathFragment.create("b"));
     invalidateDirectory(parentOf(pp1aBsym));
 
     // Traverse //a excluding subpackages. The relative symlink //a/b.sym points to the subdirectory
@@ -738,7 +739,7 @@ public final class RecursiveFilesystemTraversalFunctionTest extends FoundationTe
         regularFileForTesting(pp1aBuild),
         regularFileForTesting(pp1aFileA),
         regularFileForTesting(childOf(pp1aBsym, "file.fake")),
-        symlinkToDirectoryForTesting(parentOf(pp1bFileFake), pp1aBsym, new PathFragment("b")),
+        symlinkToDirectoryForTesting(parentOf(pp1bFileFake), pp1aBsym, PathFragment.create("b")),
         regularFileForTesting(pp1aSubdirFileB));
   }
 
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/RecursivePkgFunctionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/RecursivePkgFunctionTest.java
index 89f961a0a5..d23b527469 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/RecursivePkgFunctionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/RecursivePkgFunctionTest.java
@@ -92,7 +92,7 @@ public class RecursivePkgFunctionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
   public void testStartingAtBuildFile() throws Exception {
     scratch.file("a/b/c/BUILD");
     RecursivePkgValue value =
-        buildRecursivePkgValue(rootDirectory, new PathFragment("a/b/c/BUILD"));
+        buildRecursivePkgValue(rootDirectory, PathFragment.create("a/b/c/BUILD"));
     assertTrue(value.getPackages().isEmpty());
   }
 
@@ -106,11 +106,11 @@ public class RecursivePkgFunctionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
     scratch.file(root2 + "/a/b/BUILD");
     setPackageCacheOptions("--package_path=" + "root1" + ":" + "root2");
 
-    RecursivePkgValue valueForRoot1 = buildRecursivePkgValue(root1, new PathFragment("a"));
+    RecursivePkgValue valueForRoot1 = buildRecursivePkgValue(root1, PathFragment.create("a"));
     String root1Pkg = Iterables.getOnlyElement(valueForRoot1.getPackages());
     assertEquals(root1Pkg, "a");
 
-    RecursivePkgValue valueForRoot2 = buildRecursivePkgValue(root2, new PathFragment("a"));
+    RecursivePkgValue valueForRoot2 = buildRecursivePkgValue(root2, PathFragment.create("a"));
     String root2Pkg = Iterables.getOnlyElement(valueForRoot2.getPackages());
     assertEquals(root2Pkg, "a/b");
   }
@@ -123,10 +123,10 @@ public class RecursivePkgFunctionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
     scratch.file("a/c/BUILD");
 
     // When the top package is evaluated for recursive package values, and "a/b" is excluded,
-    PathFragment excludedPathFragment = new PathFragment("a/b");
+    PathFragment excludedPathFragment = PathFragment.create("a/b");
     SkyKey key =
         buildRecursivePkgKey(
-            rootDirectory, new PathFragment("a"), ImmutableSet.of(excludedPathFragment));
+            rootDirectory, PathFragment.create("a"), ImmutableSet.of(excludedPathFragment));
     EvaluationResult<RecursivePkgValue> evaluationResult = getEvaluationResult(key);
     RecursivePkgValue value = evaluationResult.get(key);
 
@@ -150,7 +150,7 @@ public class RecursivePkgFunctionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
     assertTrue(
         exists(
             buildRecursivePkgKey(
-                rootDirectory, new PathFragment("a/c"), ImmutableSet.<PathFragment>of()),
+                rootDirectory, PathFragment.create("a/c"), ImmutableSet.<PathFragment>of()),
             graph));
   }
 
@@ -162,8 +162,8 @@ public class RecursivePkgFunctionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
     scratch.file("a/b/d/BUILD");
 
     // When the top package is evaluated for recursive package values, and "a/b/c" is excluded,
-    ImmutableSet<PathFragment> excludedPaths = ImmutableSet.of(new PathFragment("a/b/c"));
-    SkyKey key = buildRecursivePkgKey(rootDirectory, new PathFragment("a"), excludedPaths);
+    ImmutableSet<PathFragment> excludedPaths = ImmutableSet.of(PathFragment.create("a/b/c"));
+    SkyKey key = buildRecursivePkgKey(rootDirectory, PathFragment.create("a"), excludedPaths);
     EvaluationResult<RecursivePkgValue> evaluationResult = getEvaluationResult(key);
     RecursivePkgValue value = evaluationResult.get(key);
 
@@ -178,6 +178,8 @@ public class RecursivePkgFunctionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
     // "a/b/c" does live underneath "a/b".
     WalkableGraph graph = Preconditions.checkNotNull(evaluationResult.getWalkableGraph());
     assertTrue(
-        exists(buildRecursivePkgKey(rootDirectory, new PathFragment("a/b"), excludedPaths), graph));
+        exists(
+            buildRecursivePkgKey(rootDirectory, PathFragment.create("a/b"), excludedPaths),
+            graph));
   }
 }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/RecursivePkgKeyTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/RecursivePkgKeyTest.java
index 9d0fc4dba1..e205cabf1c 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/RecursivePkgKeyTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/RecursivePkgKeyTest.java
@@ -53,37 +53,37 @@ public class RecursivePkgKeyTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
   public void testValidRecursivePkgKeys() throws Exception {
     buildRecursivePkgKey(
         RepositoryName.MAIN,
-        new PathFragment(""),
+        PathFragment.create(""),
         ImmutableSet.<PathFragment>of());
     buildRecursivePkgKey(
         RepositoryName.MAIN,
-        new PathFragment(""),
-        ImmutableSet.of(new PathFragment("a")));
+        PathFragment.create(""),
+        ImmutableSet.of(PathFragment.create("a")));
 
     buildRecursivePkgKey(
         RepositoryName.MAIN,
-        new PathFragment("a"),
+        PathFragment.create("a"),
         ImmutableSet.<PathFragment>of());
     buildRecursivePkgKey(
         RepositoryName.MAIN,
-        new PathFragment("a"),
-        ImmutableSet.of(new PathFragment("a/b")));
+        PathFragment.create("a"),
+        ImmutableSet.of(PathFragment.create("a/b")));
 
     buildRecursivePkgKey(
         RepositoryName.MAIN,
-        new PathFragment("a/b"),
+        PathFragment.create("a/b"),
         ImmutableSet.<PathFragment>of());
     buildRecursivePkgKey(
         RepositoryName.MAIN,
-        new PathFragment("a/b"),
-        ImmutableSet.of(new PathFragment("a/b/c")));
+        PathFragment.create("a/b"),
+        ImmutableSet.of(PathFragment.create("a/b/c")));
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testInvalidRecursivePkgKeys() throws Exception {
-    invalidHelper(new PathFragment(""), ImmutableSet.of(new PathFragment("")));
-    invalidHelper(new PathFragment("a"), ImmutableSet.of(new PathFragment("a")));
-    invalidHelper(new PathFragment("a"), ImmutableSet.of(new PathFragment("b")));
-    invalidHelper(new PathFragment("a/b"), ImmutableSet.of(new PathFragment("a")));
+    invalidHelper(PathFragment.create(""), ImmutableSet.of(PathFragment.create("")));
+    invalidHelper(PathFragment.create("a"), ImmutableSet.of(PathFragment.create("a")));
+    invalidHelper(PathFragment.create("a"), ImmutableSet.of(PathFragment.create("b")));
+    invalidHelper(PathFragment.create("a/b"), ImmutableSet.of(PathFragment.create("a")));
   }
 }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SkyframeAwareActionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SkyframeAwareActionTest.java
index 66c469d5f0..9c73d2f26f 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SkyframeAwareActionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SkyframeAwareActionTest.java
@@ -443,7 +443,7 @@ public class SkyframeAwareActionTest extends TimestampBuilderTestCase {
 
   private RootedPath createSkyframeDepOfAction() throws Exception {
     scratch.file(rootDirectory.getRelative("action.dep").getPathString(), "blah");
-    return RootedPath.toRootedPath(rootDirectory, new PathFragment("action.dep"));
+    return RootedPath.toRootedPath(rootDirectory, PathFragment.create("action.dep"));
   }
 
   private void appendToFile(Path path) throws Exception {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SkyframeLabelVisitorTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SkyframeLabelVisitorTest.java
index 892f72126f..8aad421603 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SkyframeLabelVisitorTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SkyframeLabelVisitorTest.java
@@ -261,8 +261,8 @@ public class SkyframeLabelVisitorTest extends SkyframeLabelVisitorTestCase {
     scratch.file("x/y/BUILD", "sh_library(name = 'z')");
     syncPackages(
         ModifiedFileSet.builder()
-            .modify(new PathFragment("x/y"))
-            .modify(new PathFragment("x/y/BUILD"))
+            .modify(PathFragment.create("x/y"))
+            .modify(PathFragment.create("x/y/BUILD"))
             .build());
 
     reporter.removeHandler(failFastHandler); // expect errors
@@ -281,7 +281,7 @@ public class SkyframeLabelVisitorTest extends SkyframeLabelVisitorTestCase {
     assertContainsEvent("Label '//x:y/z' crosses boundary of subpackage 'x/y'");
 
     scratch.deleteFile("x/y/BUILD");
-    syncPackages(ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(new PathFragment("x/y/BUILD")).build());
+    syncPackages(ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(PathFragment.create("x/y/BUILD")).build());
 
     reporter.addHandler(failFastHandler); // don't expect errors
     assertLabelsVisited(
@@ -474,14 +474,14 @@ public class SkyframeLabelVisitorTest extends SkyframeLabelVisitorTestCase {
         ImmutableSet.of("//a:a"), ImmutableSet.of("//a:a"), !EXPECT_ERROR, !KEEP_GOING);
 
     Path subpackageBuildFile = scratch.file("b/c/BUILD", "exports_files(['foo'])");
-    syncPackages(ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(new PathFragment("b/c/BUILD")).build());
+    syncPackages(ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(PathFragment.create("b/c/BUILD")).build());
 
     reporter.removeHandler(failFastHandler); // expect errors
     assertLabelsVisitedWithErrors(ImmutableSet.of("//a:a"), ImmutableSet.of("//a:a"));
     assertContainsEvent("Label '//b:c/d/foo' crosses boundary of subpackage 'b/c'");
 
     subpackageBuildFile.delete();
-    syncPackages(ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(new PathFragment("b/c/BUILD")).build());
+    syncPackages(ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(PathFragment.create("b/c/BUILD")).build());
 
     assertLabelsVisited(
         ImmutableSet.of("//a:a"), ImmutableSet.of("//a:a"), !EXPECT_ERROR, !KEEP_GOING);
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/TargetMarkerFunctionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/TargetMarkerFunctionTest.java
index d4dda9baf3..5561adcf71 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/TargetMarkerFunctionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/TargetMarkerFunctionTest.java
@@ -93,7 +93,7 @@ public class TargetMarkerFunctionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
 
     scratch.file("a/b/BUILD");
     ModifiedFileSet subpackageBuildFile =
-        ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(new PathFragment("a/b/BUILD")).build();
+        ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(PathFragment.create("a/b/BUILD")).build();
     skyframeExecutor.invalidateFilesUnderPathForTesting(
         reporter, subpackageBuildFile, rootDirectory);
 
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/TimestampBuilderTestCase.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/TimestampBuilderTestCase.java
index 8caead9e87..4b6b7002f5 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/TimestampBuilderTestCase.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/TimestampBuilderTestCase.java
@@ -309,7 +309,7 @@ public abstract class TimestampBuilderTestCase extends FoundationTestCase {
 
   Artifact createSourceArtifact(FileSystem fs, String name) {
     Path root = fs.getPath(TestUtils.tmpDir());
-    return new Artifact(new PathFragment(name), Root.asSourceRoot(root));
+    return new Artifact(PathFragment.create(name), Root.asSourceRoot(root));
   }
 
   protected Artifact createDerivedArtifact(String name) {
@@ -318,7 +318,7 @@ public abstract class TimestampBuilderTestCase extends FoundationTestCase {
 
   Artifact createDerivedArtifact(FileSystem fs, String name) {
     Path execRoot = fs.getPath(TestUtils.tmpDir());
-    PathFragment execPath = new PathFragment("out").getRelative(name);
+    PathFragment execPath = PathFragment.create("out").getRelative(name);
     Path path = execRoot.getRelative(execPath);
     return new Artifact(
         path, Root.asDerivedRoot(execRoot, execRoot.getRelative("out")), execPath, ALL_OWNER);
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/TreeArtifactBuildTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/TreeArtifactBuildTest.java
index 99da8b961b..c682340282 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/TreeArtifactBuildTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/TreeArtifactBuildTest.java
@@ -709,9 +709,9 @@ public class TreeArtifactBuildTest extends TimestampBuilderTestCase {
     // artifact1 is a tree artifact generated by a TouchingTestAction.
     Artifact artifact1 = createTreeArtifact("treeArtifact1");
     TreeFileArtifact treeFileArtifactA = ActionInputHelper.treeFileArtifact(
-        artifact1, new PathFragment("child1"));
+        artifact1, PathFragment.create("child1"));
     TreeFileArtifact treeFileArtifactB = ActionInputHelper.treeFileArtifact(
-        artifact1, new PathFragment("child2"));
+        artifact1, PathFragment.create("child2"));
     registerAction(new TouchingTestAction(treeFileArtifactA, treeFileArtifactB));
 
     // artifact2 is a tree artifact generated by an action template.
@@ -723,9 +723,9 @@ public class TreeArtifactBuildTest extends TimestampBuilderTestCase {
     // We mock out the action template function to expand into two actions that just touch the
     // output files.
     TreeFileArtifact expectedOutputTreeFileArtifact1 = ActionInputHelper.treeFileArtifact(
-        artifact2, new PathFragment("child1"));
+        artifact2, PathFragment.create("child1"));
     TreeFileArtifact expectedOutputTreeFileArtifact2 = ActionInputHelper.treeFileArtifact(
-        artifact2, new PathFragment("child2"));
+        artifact2, PathFragment.create("child2"));
     Action generateOutputAction = new DummyAction(
         ImmutableList.<Artifact>of(treeFileArtifactA), expectedOutputTreeFileArtifact1);
     Action noGenerateOutputAction = new DummyAction(
@@ -747,9 +747,9 @@ public class TreeArtifactBuildTest extends TimestampBuilderTestCase {
     // artifact1 is a tree artifact generated by a TouchingTestAction.
     Artifact artifact1 = createTreeArtifact("treeArtifact1");
     TreeFileArtifact treeFileArtifactA = ActionInputHelper.treeFileArtifact(
-        artifact1, new PathFragment("child1"));
+        artifact1, PathFragment.create("child1"));
     TreeFileArtifact treeFileArtifactB = ActionInputHelper.treeFileArtifact(
-        artifact1, new PathFragment("child2"));
+        artifact1, PathFragment.create("child2"));
     registerAction(new TouchingTestAction(treeFileArtifactA, treeFileArtifactB));
 
     // artifact2 is a tree artifact generated by an action template.
@@ -762,9 +762,9 @@ public class TreeArtifactBuildTest extends TimestampBuilderTestCase {
     // One Action that touches the output file.
     // The other action that does not generate the output file.
     TreeFileArtifact expectedOutputTreeFileArtifact1 = ActionInputHelper.treeFileArtifact(
-        artifact2, new PathFragment("child1"));
+        artifact2, PathFragment.create("child1"));
     TreeFileArtifact expectedOutputTreeFileArtifact2 = ActionInputHelper.treeFileArtifact(
-        artifact2, new PathFragment("child2"));
+        artifact2, PathFragment.create("child2"));
     Action generateOutputAction = new DummyAction(
         ImmutableList.<Artifact>of(treeFileArtifactA), expectedOutputTreeFileArtifact1);
     Action noGenerateOutputAction = new NoOpDummyAction(
@@ -792,9 +792,9 @@ public class TreeArtifactBuildTest extends TimestampBuilderTestCase {
     // artifact1 is a tree artifact generated by a TouchingTestAction.
     Artifact artifact1 = createTreeArtifact("treeArtifact1");
     TreeFileArtifact treeFileArtifactA = ActionInputHelper.treeFileArtifact(
-        artifact1, new PathFragment("child1"));
+        artifact1, PathFragment.create("child1"));
     TreeFileArtifact treeFileArtifactB = ActionInputHelper.treeFileArtifact(
-        artifact1, new PathFragment("child2"));
+        artifact1, PathFragment.create("child2"));
     registerAction(new TouchingTestAction(treeFileArtifactA, treeFileArtifactB));
 
     // artifact2 is a tree artifact generated by an action template.
@@ -807,9 +807,9 @@ public class TreeArtifactBuildTest extends TimestampBuilderTestCase {
     // One Action that touches the output file.
     // The other action that just throws when executed.
     TreeFileArtifact expectedOutputTreeFileArtifact1 = ActionInputHelper.treeFileArtifact(
-        artifact2, new PathFragment("child1"));
+        artifact2, PathFragment.create("child1"));
     TreeFileArtifact expectedOutputTreeFileArtifact2 = ActionInputHelper.treeFileArtifact(
-        artifact2, new PathFragment("child2"));
+        artifact2, PathFragment.create("child2"));
     Action generateOutputAction = new DummyAction(
         ImmutableList.<Artifact>of(treeFileArtifactA), expectedOutputTreeFileArtifact1);
     Action throwingAction = new ThrowingDummyAction(
@@ -837,9 +837,9 @@ public class TreeArtifactBuildTest extends TimestampBuilderTestCase {
     // artifact1 is a tree artifact generated by a TouchingTestAction.
     Artifact artifact1 = createTreeArtifact("treeArtifact1");
     TreeFileArtifact treeFileArtifactA = ActionInputHelper.treeFileArtifact(
-        artifact1, new PathFragment("child1"));
+        artifact1, PathFragment.create("child1"));
     TreeFileArtifact treeFileArtifactB = ActionInputHelper.treeFileArtifact(
-        artifact1, new PathFragment("child2"));
+        artifact1, PathFragment.create("child2"));
     registerAction(new TouchingTestAction(treeFileArtifactA, treeFileArtifactB));
 
     // artifact2 is a tree artifact generated by an action template.
@@ -850,9 +850,9 @@ public class TreeArtifactBuildTest extends TimestampBuilderTestCase {
 
     // We mock out the action template function to expand into two actions that throw when executed.
     TreeFileArtifact expectedOutputTreeFileArtifact1 = ActionInputHelper.treeFileArtifact(
-        artifact2, new PathFragment("child1"));
+        artifact2, PathFragment.create("child1"));
     TreeFileArtifact expectedOutputTreeFileArtifact2 = ActionInputHelper.treeFileArtifact(
-        artifact2, new PathFragment("child2"));
+        artifact2, PathFragment.create("child2"));
     Action throwingAction = new ThrowingDummyAction(
         ImmutableList.<Artifact>of(treeFileArtifactA),
         ImmutableList.<Artifact>of(expectedOutputTreeFileArtifact1));
@@ -1044,7 +1044,7 @@ public class TreeArtifactBuildTest extends TimestampBuilderTestCase {
 
     void registerOutput(ActionExecutionContext context, String outputName) throws IOException {
       context.getMetadataHandler().addExpandedTreeOutput(
-          treeFileArtifact(getSoleOutput(), new PathFragment(outputName)));
+          treeFileArtifact(getSoleOutput(), PathFragment.create(outputName)));
     }
 
     static List<TreeFileArtifact> asTreeFileArtifacts(final Artifact parent, String... files) {
@@ -1158,7 +1158,7 @@ public class TreeArtifactBuildTest extends TimestampBuilderTestCase {
   private Artifact createTreeArtifact(String name) {
     FileSystem fs = scratch.getFileSystem();
     Path execRoot = fs.getPath(TestUtils.tmpDir());
-    PathFragment execPath = new PathFragment("out").getRelative(name);
+    PathFragment execPath = PathFragment.create("out").getRelative(name);
     Path path = execRoot.getRelative(execPath);
     return new SpecialArtifact(
         path, Root.asDerivedRoot(execRoot, execRoot.getRelative("out")), execPath, ALL_OWNER,
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/TreeArtifactMetadataTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/TreeArtifactMetadataTest.java
index 03d661867a..56bf8a511c 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/TreeArtifactMetadataTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/TreeArtifactMetadataTest.java
@@ -124,7 +124,7 @@ public class TreeArtifactMetadataTest extends ArtifactFunctionTestCase {
   public void testEqualTreeArtifacts() throws Exception {
     Artifact treeArtifact = createTreeArtifact("out");
     ImmutableList<PathFragment> children =
-        ImmutableList.of(new PathFragment("one"), new PathFragment("two"));
+        ImmutableList.of(PathFragment.create("one"), PathFragment.create("two"));
     TreeArtifactValue valueOne = evaluateTreeArtifact(treeArtifact, children);
     MemoizingEvaluator evaluator = driver.getGraphForTesting();
     evaluator.delete(new Predicate<SkyKey>() {
@@ -142,18 +142,18 @@ public class TreeArtifactMetadataTest extends ArtifactFunctionTestCase {
   @Test
   public void testTreeArtifactsWithDigests() throws Exception {
     fastDigest = true;
-    doTestTreeArtifacts(ImmutableList.of(new PathFragment("one")));
+    doTestTreeArtifacts(ImmutableList.of(PathFragment.create("one")));
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testTreeArtifactsWithoutDigests() throws Exception {
     fastDigest = false;
-    doTestTreeArtifacts(ImmutableList.of(new PathFragment("one")));
+    doTestTreeArtifacts(ImmutableList.of(PathFragment.create("one")));
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testTreeArtifactMultipleDigests() throws Exception {
-    doTestTreeArtifacts(ImmutableList.of(new PathFragment("one"), new PathFragment("two")));
+    doTestTreeArtifacts(ImmutableList.of(PathFragment.create("one"), PathFragment.create("two")));
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -162,7 +162,7 @@ public class TreeArtifactMetadataTest extends ArtifactFunctionTestCase {
     Artifact one = createTreeArtifact("outOne");
     Artifact two = createTreeArtifact("outTwo");
     ImmutableList<PathFragment> children =
-        ImmutableList.of(new PathFragment("one"), new PathFragment("two"));
+        ImmutableList.of(PathFragment.create("one"), PathFragment.create("two"));
     TreeArtifactValue valueOne = evaluateTreeArtifact(one, children);
     TreeArtifactValue valueTwo = evaluateTreeArtifact(two, children);
     assertThat(valueOne.getDigest()).isEqualTo(valueTwo.getDigest());
@@ -188,7 +188,7 @@ public class TreeArtifactMetadataTest extends ArtifactFunctionTestCase {
     try {
       Artifact artifact = createTreeArtifact("outOne");
       TreeArtifactValue value = evaluateTreeArtifact(artifact,
-          ImmutableList.of(new PathFragment("one")));
+          ImmutableList.of(PathFragment.create("one")));
       fail("MissingInputFileException expected, got " + value);
     } catch (Exception e) {
       assertThat(Throwables.getRootCause(e).getMessage()).contains(exception.getMessage());
@@ -201,7 +201,7 @@ public class TreeArtifactMetadataTest extends ArtifactFunctionTestCase {
   }
 
   private Artifact createTreeArtifact(String path) throws IOException {
-    PathFragment execPath = new PathFragment("out").getRelative(path);
+    PathFragment execPath = PathFragment.create("out").getRelative(path);
     Path fullPath = root.getRelative(execPath);
     Artifact output =
         new SpecialArtifact(
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/WorkspaceASTFunctionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/WorkspaceASTFunctionTest.java
index 832cb1c5c7..95e1a6218a 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/WorkspaceASTFunctionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/WorkspaceASTFunctionTest.java
@@ -60,7 +60,7 @@ public class WorkspaceASTFunctionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
     Path workspacePath = scratch.overwriteFile("WORKSPACE", contents);
     fakeWorkspaceFileValue.setSize(workspacePath.getFileSize());
     return RootedPath.toRootedPath(
-        workspacePath.getParentDirectory(), new PathFragment(workspacePath.getBaseName()));
+        workspacePath.getParentDirectory(), PathFragment.create(workspacePath.getBaseName()));
   }
 
   private SkyFunction.Environment getEnv() throws InterruptedException {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/WorkspaceFileFunctionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/WorkspaceFileFunctionTest.java
index 0f5e046c1e..714c662fc8 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/WorkspaceFileFunctionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/WorkspaceFileFunctionTest.java
@@ -124,7 +124,7 @@ public class WorkspaceFileFunctionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
     Path workspacePath = scratch.overwriteFile("WORKSPACE", contents);
     fakeWorkspaceFileValue.setSize(workspacePath.getFileSize());
     return RootedPath.toRootedPath(
-        workspacePath.getParentDirectory(), new PathFragment(workspacePath.getBaseName()));
+        workspacePath.getParentDirectory(), PathFragment.create(workspacePath.getBaseName()));
   }
 
   // Dummy harmcrest matcher that match the function name of a skykey
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/WorkspaceNameFunctionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/WorkspaceNameFunctionTest.java
index fbb1e644ef..589a53cf04 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/WorkspaceNameFunctionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/WorkspaceNameFunctionTest.java
@@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ public class WorkspaceNameFunctionTest extends BuildViewTestCase {
   private EvaluationResult<WorkspaceNameValue> eval() throws InterruptedException {
     getSkyframeExecutor().invalidateFilesUnderPathForTesting(
         reporter,
-        ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(new PathFragment("WORKSPACE")).build(),
+        ModifiedFileSet.builder().modify(PathFragment.create("WORKSPACE")).build(),
         rootDirectory);
     return SkyframeExecutorTestUtils.evaluate(
         getSkyframeExecutor(), key, /*keepGoing=*/ false, reporter);
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/syntax/EnvironmentTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/syntax/EnvironmentTest.java
index 71e9cec416..5ad7027643 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/syntax/EnvironmentTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/syntax/EnvironmentTest.java
@@ -243,8 +243,8 @@ public class EnvironmentTest extends EvaluationTestCase {
       }
     }
     DummyFreezable dummy = new DummyFreezable();
-    Location locA = Location.fromPathFragment(new PathFragment("/a"));
-    Location locB = Location.fromPathFragment(new PathFragment("/b"));
+    Location locA = Location.fromPathFragment(PathFragment.create("/a"));
+    Location locB = Location.fromPathFragment(PathFragment.create("/b"));
     Environment env = Environment.builder(mutability).build();
 
     // Acquire two locks, release two locks, check along the way.
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/syntax/LexerTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/syntax/LexerTest.java
index 10da1add9b..b270a54f65 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/syntax/LexerTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/syntax/LexerTest.java
@@ -41,7 +41,7 @@ public class LexerTest {
    * error handler beforehand.
    */
   private Lexer createLexer(String input) {
-    PathFragment somePath = new PathFragment("/some/path.txt");
+    PathFragment somePath = PathFragment.create("/some/path.txt");
     ParserInputSource inputSource = ParserInputSource.create(input, somePath);
     Reporter reporter = new Reporter(new EventBus());
     reporter.addHandler(new EventHandler() {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/syntax/LineNumberTableTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/syntax/LineNumberTableTest.java
index c461635406..4377b3527a 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/syntax/LineNumberTableTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/syntax/LineNumberTableTest.java
@@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ import org.junit.runners.JUnit4;
 @RunWith(JUnit4.class)
 public class LineNumberTableTest {
   private LineNumberTable create(String buffer) {
-    return LineNumberTable.create(buffer.toCharArray(), new PathFragment("/fake/file"));
+    return LineNumberTable.create(buffer.toCharArray(), PathFragment.create("/fake/file"));
   }
 
   @Test
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/syntax/ParserInputSourceTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/syntax/ParserInputSourceTest.java
index d93fc6a6a9..467a5ba84d 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/syntax/ParserInputSourceTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/syntax/ParserInputSourceTest.java
@@ -50,7 +50,7 @@ public class ParserInputSourceTest {
   public void testCreateFromString() {
     String content = "Content provided as a string.";
     String pathName = "/the/name/of/the/content.txt";
-    ParserInputSource input = ParserInputSource.create(content, new PathFragment(pathName));
+    ParserInputSource input = ParserInputSource.create(content, PathFragment.create(pathName));
     assertEquals(content, new String(input.getContent()));
     assertEquals(pathName, input.getPath().toString());
   }
@@ -60,7 +60,7 @@ public class ParserInputSourceTest {
     String content = "Content provided as a string.";
     String pathName = "/the/name/of/the/content.txt";
     char[] contentChars = content.toCharArray();
-    ParserInputSource input = ParserInputSource.create(contentChars, new PathFragment(pathName));
+    ParserInputSource input = ParserInputSource.create(contentChars, PathFragment.create(pathName));
     assertEquals(content, new String(input.getContent()));
     assertEquals(pathName, input.getPath().toString());
   }
@@ -81,12 +81,12 @@ public class ParserInputSourceTest {
   @Test
   public void testWillNotTryToReadInputFileIfContentProvidedAsString() {
     ParserInputSource.create(
-        "Content provided as string.", new PathFragment("/will/not/try/to/read"));
+        "Content provided as string.", PathFragment.create("/will/not/try/to/read"));
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testWillNotTryToReadInputFileIfContentProvidedAsChars() {
     char[] content = "Content provided as char array.".toCharArray();
-    ParserInputSource.create(content, new PathFragment("/will/not/try/to/read"));
+    ParserInputSource.create(content, PathFragment.create("/will/not/try/to/read"));
   }
 }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/syntax/ParserTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/syntax/ParserTest.java
index db96a9de38..e107d1b6bd 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/syntax/ParserTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/syntax/ParserTest.java
@@ -1025,7 +1025,7 @@ public class ParserTest extends EvaluationTestCase {
     assertThat(imp.getImportString()).named("getImportString()").isEqualTo("/some/skylark/file");
     assertThat(imp.hasAbsolutePath()).named("hasAbsolutePath()").isTrue();
     assertThat(imp.getAbsolutePath()).named("getAbsolutePath()")
-        .isEqualTo(new PathFragment("/some/skylark/file.bzl"));
+        .isEqualTo(PathFragment.create("/some/skylark/file.bzl"));
 
     int startOffset = stmt.getImport().getLocation().getStartOffset();
     int endOffset = stmt.getImport().getLocation().getEndOffset();
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/syntax/SkylarkImportTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/syntax/SkylarkImportTest.java
index 49fdd73bcf..fa9dfbfa51 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/syntax/SkylarkImportTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/syntax/SkylarkImportTest.java
@@ -46,7 +46,7 @@ public class SkylarkImportTest {
         .isEqualTo(Label.parseAbsoluteUnchecked(expectedLabelString));
  
     assertThat(importForLabel.asPathFragment()).named("asPathFragment()")
-        .isEqualTo(new PathFragment(expectedPathString));
+        .isEqualTo(PathFragment.create(expectedPathString));
 
     thrown.expect(IllegalStateException.class);
     importForLabel.getAbsolutePath();   
@@ -76,10 +76,10 @@ public class SkylarkImportTest {
 
     Label irrelevantContainingFile = Label.parseAbsoluteUnchecked("//another/path:BUILD");
     assertThat(importForPath.getAbsolutePath()).named("getAbsolutePath()")
-        .isEqualTo(new PathFragment("//some/skylark/file.bzl"));
+        .isEqualTo(PathFragment.create("//some/skylark/file.bzl"));
 
      assertThat(importForPath.asPathFragment()).named("asPathFragment()")
-        .isEqualTo(new PathFragment("/some/skylark/file.bzl"));
+        .isEqualTo(PathFragment.create("/some/skylark/file.bzl"));
 
     thrown.expect(IllegalStateException.class);
     importForPath.getLabel(irrelevantContainingFile);
@@ -99,7 +99,7 @@ public class SkylarkImportTest {
         .isEqualTo(Label.parseAbsolute(expectedLabelString));
 
     assertThat(importForLabel.asPathFragment()).named("asPathFragment()")
-        .isEqualTo(new PathFragment(expectedPathString));
+        .isEqualTo(PathFragment.create(expectedPathString));
 
    thrown.expect(IllegalStateException.class);
     importForLabel.getAbsolutePath();
@@ -149,7 +149,7 @@ public class SkylarkImportTest {
         .isEqualTo(Label.parseAbsolute(expectedLabelString));
     
     assertThat(importForPath.asPathFragment()).named("asPathFragment()")
-        .isEqualTo(new PathFragment(expectedPathString));
+        .isEqualTo(PathFragment.create(expectedPathString));
 
     thrown.expect(IllegalStateException.class);
     importForPath.getAbsolutePath();
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/util/FileTypeTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/util/FileTypeTest.java
index fd051904b1..67bdfe2804 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/util/FileTypeTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/util/FileTypeTest.java
@@ -97,7 +97,7 @@ public class FileTypeTest {
 
   @Test
   public void handlesPathFragmentObjects() {
-    PathFragment readme = new PathFragment("some/where/readme.txt");
+    PathFragment readme = PathFragment.create("some/where/readme.txt");
     assertTrue(TEXT.matches(readme));
   }
 
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/util/FingerprintTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/util/FingerprintTest.java
index faf974578f..d1806ee003 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/util/FingerprintTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/util/FingerprintTest.java
@@ -112,7 +112,7 @@ public class FingerprintTest {
 
   @Test
   public void addPath() throws Exception {
-    PathFragment pf = new PathFragment("/etc/pwd");
+    PathFragment pf = PathFragment.create("/etc/pwd");
     assertThat(new Fingerprint().addPath(pf).hexDigestAndReset())
         .isEqualTo("63ab5c47c117635407a1af6377e216bc");
     Path p = new InMemoryFileSystem(BlazeClock.instance()).getPath(pf);
@@ -161,8 +161,8 @@ public class FingerprintTest {
         .addNullableBoolean(null)
         .addNullableInt(null)
         .addNullableString(null)
-        .addPath(new PathFragment("/foo/bar"))
-        .addPaths(ImmutableList.of(new PathFragment("/foo/bar")))
+        .addPath(PathFragment.create("/foo/bar"))
+        .addPaths(ImmutableList.of(PathFragment.create("/foo/bar")))
         .addString("baz")
         .addUUID(UUID.fromString("12345678-1234-1234-1234-1234567890ab"))
         .hexDigestAndReset();
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/util/OptionsUtilsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/util/OptionsUtilsTest.java
index 9995dfc34f..84030ad481 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/util/OptionsUtilsTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/util/OptionsUtilsTest.java
@@ -124,7 +124,7 @@ public class OptionsUtilsTest {
   }
 
   private PathFragment fragment(String string) {
-    return new PathFragment(string);
+    return PathFragment.create(string);
   }
 
   private List<PathFragment> convert(String input) throws Exception {
@@ -155,7 +155,7 @@ public class OptionsUtilsTest {
   @Test
   public void valueisUnmodifiable() throws Exception {
     try {
-      new PathFragmentListConverter().convert("value").add(new PathFragment("other"));
+      new PathFragmentListConverter().convert("value").add(PathFragment.create("other"));
       fail("could modify value");
     } catch (UnsupportedOperationException expected) {}
   }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/util/PathFragmentFilterTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/util/PathFragmentFilterTest.java
index 134c7a51a3..3f25414582 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/util/PathFragmentFilterTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/util/PathFragmentFilterTest.java
@@ -35,11 +35,11 @@ public class PathFragmentFilterTest {
   }
 
   protected void assertIncluded(String path) {
-    assertTrue(filter.isIncluded(new PathFragment(path)));
+    assertTrue(filter.isIncluded(PathFragment.create(path)));
   }
 
   protected void assertExcluded(String path) {
-    assertFalse(filter.isIncluded(new PathFragment(path)));
+    assertFalse(filter.isIncluded(PathFragment.create(path)));
   }
 
   @Test
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/FileSystemTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/FileSystemTest.java
index 8b4255b510..0a1d052002 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/FileSystemTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/FileSystemTest.java
@@ -306,7 +306,7 @@ public abstract class FileSystemTest {
   @Test
   public void testCreatePathRelativeToWorkingDirectory() {
     Path relativeCreatedPath = absolutize("some-file");
-    Path expectedResult = workingDir.getRelative(new PathFragment("some-file"));
+    Path expectedResult = workingDir.getRelative(PathFragment.create("some-file"));
 
     assertEquals(expectedResult, relativeCreatedPath);
   }
@@ -1091,7 +1091,7 @@ public abstract class FileSystemTest {
   @Test
   public void testGetPathOnlyAcceptsAbsolutePathFragment() {
     try {
-      testFS.getPath(new PathFragment("not-absolute"));
+      testFS.getPath(PathFragment.create("not-absolute"));
       fail("The expected Exception was not thrown.");
     } catch (IllegalArgumentException ex) {
       assertThat(ex).hasMessage("not-absolute (not an absolute path)");
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/FileSystemUtilsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/FileSystemUtilsTest.java
index f9f4850320..421b9fbd59 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/FileSystemUtilsTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/FileSystemUtilsTest.java
@@ -227,69 +227,70 @@ public class FileSystemUtilsTest {
   @Test
   public void testReplaceExtension_PathFragment() throws Exception {
     assertPath("foo/bar.baz",
-               FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(new PathFragment("foo/bar"), ".baz"));
+               FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(PathFragment.create("foo/bar"), ".baz"));
     assertPath("foo/bar.baz",
-               FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(new PathFragment("foo/bar.cc"), ".baz"));
+               FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(PathFragment.create("foo/bar.cc"), ".baz"));
     assertPath("/foo/bar.baz",
-               FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(new PathFragment("/foo/bar"), ".baz"));
+               FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(PathFragment.create("/foo/bar"), ".baz"));
     assertPath("/foo/bar.baz",
-               FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(new PathFragment("/foo/bar.cc"), ".baz"));
-    assertPath("foo.baz", FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(new PathFragment("foo/"), ".baz"));
-    assertPath("foo.baz", FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(new PathFragment("foo.cc/"), ".baz"));
-    assertPath("/foo.baz", FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(new PathFragment("/foo/"), ".baz"));
+               FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(PathFragment.create("/foo/bar.cc"), ".baz"));
+    assertPath("foo.baz", FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(PathFragment.create("foo/"), ".baz"));
+    assertPath("foo.baz", FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(PathFragment.create("foo.cc/"), ".baz"));
+    assertPath("/foo.baz", FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(PathFragment.create("/foo/"), ".baz"));
     assertPath("/foo.baz",
-               FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(new PathFragment("/foo.cc/"), ".baz"));
-    assertPath("foo.baz", FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(new PathFragment("foo"), ".baz"));
-    assertPath("foo.baz", FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(new PathFragment("foo.cc"), ".baz"));
-    assertPath("/foo.baz", FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(new PathFragment("/foo"), ".baz"));
+               FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(PathFragment.create("/foo.cc/"), ".baz"));
+    assertPath("foo.baz", FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(PathFragment.create("foo"), ".baz"));
+    assertPath("foo.baz", FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(PathFragment.create("foo.cc"), ".baz"));
+    assertPath("/foo.baz", FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(PathFragment.create("/foo"), ".baz"));
     assertPath("/foo.baz",
-               FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(new PathFragment("/foo.cc"), ".baz"));
-    assertPath(".baz", FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(new PathFragment(".cc"), ".baz"));
-    assertNull(FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(new PathFragment("/"), ".baz"));
-    assertNull(FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(new PathFragment(""), ".baz"));
+               FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(PathFragment.create("/foo.cc"), ".baz"));
+    assertPath(".baz", FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(PathFragment.create(".cc"), ".baz"));
+    assertNull(FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(PathFragment.create("/"), ".baz"));
+    assertNull(FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(PathFragment.create(""), ".baz"));
     assertPath("foo/bar.baz",
-        FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(new PathFragment("foo/bar.pony"), ".baz", ".pony"));
+        FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(PathFragment.create("foo/bar.pony"), ".baz", ".pony"));
     assertPath("foo/bar.baz",
-        FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(new PathFragment("foo/bar"), ".baz", ""));
-    assertNull(FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(new PathFragment(""), ".baz", ".pony"));
+        FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(PathFragment.create("foo/bar"), ".baz", ""));
+    assertNull(FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(PathFragment.create(""), ".baz", ".pony"));
     assertNull(
-        FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(new PathFragment("foo/bar.pony"), ".baz", ".unicorn"));
+        FileSystemUtils.replaceExtension(PathFragment.create("foo/bar.pony"), ".baz", ".unicorn"));
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testAppendWithoutExtension() throws Exception {
     assertPath("libfoo-src.jar",
-        appendWithoutExtension(new PathFragment("libfoo.jar"), "-src"));
+        appendWithoutExtension(PathFragment.create("libfoo.jar"), "-src"));
     assertPath("foo/libfoo-src.jar",
-        appendWithoutExtension(new PathFragment("foo/libfoo.jar"), "-src"));
+        appendWithoutExtension(PathFragment.create("foo/libfoo.jar"), "-src"));
     assertPath("java/com/google/foo/libfoo-src.jar",
-        appendWithoutExtension(new PathFragment("java/com/google/foo/libfoo.jar"), "-src"));
+        appendWithoutExtension(PathFragment.create("java/com/google/foo/libfoo.jar"), "-src"));
     assertPath("libfoo.bar-src.jar",
-        appendWithoutExtension(new PathFragment("libfoo.bar.jar"), "-src"));
+        appendWithoutExtension(PathFragment.create("libfoo.bar.jar"), "-src"));
     assertPath("libfoo-src",
-        appendWithoutExtension(new PathFragment("libfoo"), "-src"));
+        appendWithoutExtension(PathFragment.create("libfoo"), "-src"));
     assertPath("libfoo-src.jar",
-        appendWithoutExtension(new PathFragment("libfoo.jar/"), "-src"));
+        appendWithoutExtension(PathFragment.create("libfoo.jar/"), "-src"));
     assertPath("libfoo.src.jar",
-        appendWithoutExtension(new PathFragment("libfoo.jar"), ".src"));
-    assertNull(appendWithoutExtension(new PathFragment("/"), "-src"));
-    assertNull(appendWithoutExtension(new PathFragment(""), "-src"));
+        appendWithoutExtension(PathFragment.create("libfoo.jar"), ".src"));
+    assertNull(appendWithoutExtension(PathFragment.create("/"), "-src"));
+    assertNull(appendWithoutExtension(PathFragment.create(""), "-src"));
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testReplaceSegments() {
     assertPath(
         "poo/bar/baz.cc",
-        FileSystemUtils.replaceSegments(new PathFragment("foo/bar/baz.cc"), "foo", "poo", true));
+        FileSystemUtils.replaceSegments(PathFragment.create("foo/bar/baz.cc"), "foo", "poo", true));
     assertPath(
         "poo/poo/baz.cc",
-        FileSystemUtils.replaceSegments(new PathFragment("foo/foo/baz.cc"), "foo", "poo", true));
+        FileSystemUtils.replaceSegments(PathFragment.create("foo/foo/baz.cc"), "foo", "poo", true));
     assertPath(
         "poo/foo/baz.cc",
-        FileSystemUtils.replaceSegments(new PathFragment("foo/foo/baz.cc"), "foo", "poo", false));
+        FileSystemUtils.replaceSegments(
+            PathFragment.create("foo/foo/baz.cc"), "foo", "poo", false));
     assertPath(
         "foo/bar/baz.cc",
-        FileSystemUtils.replaceSegments(new PathFragment("foo/bar/baz.cc"), "boo", "poo", true));
+        FileSystemUtils.replaceSegments(PathFragment.create("foo/bar/baz.cc"), "boo", "poo", true));
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -308,11 +309,11 @@ public class FileSystemUtilsTest {
 
   @Test
   public void testResolveRelativeToFilesystemWorkingDir() {
-    PathFragment relativePath = new PathFragment("relative/path");
+    PathFragment relativePath = PathFragment.create("relative/path");
     assertEquals(workingDir.getRelative(relativePath),
                  workingDir.getRelative(relativePath));
 
-    PathFragment absolutePath = new PathFragment("/absolute/path");
+    PathFragment absolutePath = PathFragment.create("/absolute/path");
     assertEquals(fileSystem.getPath(absolutePath),
                  workingDir.getRelative(absolutePath));
   }
@@ -781,16 +782,16 @@ public class FileSystemUtilsTest {
 
   @Test
   public void testStartsWithAnySuccess() throws Exception {
-    PathFragment a = new PathFragment("a");
+    PathFragment a = PathFragment.create("a");
     assertTrue(FileSystemUtils.startsWithAny(a,
-        Arrays.asList(new PathFragment("b"), new PathFragment("a"))));
+        Arrays.asList(PathFragment.create("b"), PathFragment.create("a"))));
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testStartsWithAnyNotFound() throws Exception {
-    PathFragment a = new PathFragment("a");
+    PathFragment a = PathFragment.create("a");
     assertFalse(FileSystemUtils.startsWithAny(a,
-        Arrays.asList(new PathFragment("b"), new PathFragment("c"))));
+        Arrays.asList(PathFragment.create("b"), PathFragment.create("c"))));
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -811,7 +812,7 @@ public class FileSystemUtilsTest {
 
   @Test
   public void testEnsureSymbolicLinkDoesNotMakeUnnecessaryChanges() throws Exception {
-    PathFragment target = new PathFragment("/b");
+    PathFragment target = PathFragment.create("/b");
     Path file = fileSystem.getPath("/a");
     file.createSymbolicLink(target);
     long prevTimeMillis = clock.currentTimeMillis();
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/ModifiedFileSetTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/ModifiedFileSetTest.java
index 07eedbeded..f3c5eb63e7 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/ModifiedFileSetTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/ModifiedFileSetTest.java
@@ -28,8 +28,8 @@ public class ModifiedFileSetTest {
 
   @Test
   public void testHashCodeAndEqualsContract() throws Exception {
-    PathFragment fragA = new PathFragment("a");
-    PathFragment fragB = new PathFragment("b");
+    PathFragment fragA = PathFragment.create("a");
+    PathFragment fragB = PathFragment.create("b");
 
     ModifiedFileSet empty1 = ModifiedFileSet.NOTHING_MODIFIED;
     ModifiedFileSet empty2 = ModifiedFileSet.builder().build();
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/PathFragmentTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/PathFragmentTest.java
index c4ac7c1b32..2e455ccae8 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/PathFragmentTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/PathFragmentTest.java
@@ -40,10 +40,13 @@ import org.junit.runners.JUnit4;
 public class PathFragmentTest {
   @Test
   public void testMergeFourPathsWithAbsolute() {
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment("x/y/z/a/b/c/d/e"),
-        new PathFragment(new PathFragment("x/y"), new PathFragment("z/a"),
-            new PathFragment("/b/c"), // absolute!
-            new PathFragment("d/e")));
+    assertEquals(
+        PathFragment.create("x/y/z/a/b/c/d/e"),
+        PathFragment.create(
+            PathFragment.create("x/y"),
+            PathFragment.create("z/a"),
+            PathFragment.create("/b/c"),
+            PathFragment.create("d/e")));
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -68,22 +71,22 @@ public class PathFragmentTest {
 
     new EqualsTester()
         .addEqualityGroup(
-            new PathFragment("../relative/path"),
-            new PathFragment("..").getRelative("relative").getRelative("path"),
-            new PathFragment('\0', false, new String[] {"..", "relative", "path"}),
-            new PathFragment(new File("../relative/path")))
-        .addEqualityGroup(new PathFragment("something/else"))
-        .addEqualityGroup(new PathFragment("/something/else"))
-        .addEqualityGroup(new PathFragment("/"), new PathFragment("//////"))
-        .addEqualityGroup(new PathFragment(""), PathFragment.EMPTY_FRAGMENT)
+            PathFragment.create("../relative/path"),
+            PathFragment.create("..").getRelative("relative").getRelative("path"),
+            PathFragment.createNoClone('\0', false, new String[] {"..", "relative", "path"}),
+            PathFragment.create(new File("../relative/path")))
+        .addEqualityGroup(PathFragment.create("something/else"))
+        .addEqualityGroup(PathFragment.create("/something/else"))
+        .addEqualityGroup(PathFragment.create("/"), PathFragment.create("//////"))
+        .addEqualityGroup(PathFragment.create(""), PathFragment.EMPTY_FRAGMENT)
         .addEqualityGroup(filesystem.getRootDirectory()) // A Path object.
         .testEquals();
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testHashCodeCache() {
-    PathFragment relativePath = new PathFragment("../relative/path");
-    PathFragment rootPath = new PathFragment("/");
+    PathFragment relativePath = PathFragment.create("../relative/path");
+    PathFragment rootPath = PathFragment.create("/");
 
     int oldResult = relativePath.hashCode();
     int rootResult = rootPath.hashCode();
@@ -92,19 +95,21 @@ public class PathFragmentTest {
   }
 
   private void checkRelativeTo(String path, String base) {
-    PathFragment relative = new PathFragment(path).relativeTo(base);
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment(path), new PathFragment(base).getRelative(relative).normalize());
+    PathFragment relative = PathFragment.create(path).relativeTo(base);
+    assertEquals(
+        PathFragment.create(path),
+        PathFragment.create(base).getRelative(relative).normalize());
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testRelativeTo() {
-    assertPath("bar/baz", new PathFragment("foo/bar/baz").relativeTo("foo"));
-    assertPath("bar/baz", new PathFragment("/foo/bar/baz").relativeTo("/foo"));
-    assertPath("baz", new PathFragment("foo/bar/baz").relativeTo("foo/bar"));
-    assertPath("baz", new PathFragment("/foo/bar/baz").relativeTo("/foo/bar"));
-    assertPath("foo", new PathFragment("/foo").relativeTo("/"));
-    assertPath("foo", new PathFragment("foo").relativeTo(""));
-    assertPath("foo/bar", new PathFragment("foo/bar").relativeTo(""));
+    assertPath("bar/baz", PathFragment.create("foo/bar/baz").relativeTo("foo"));
+    assertPath("bar/baz", PathFragment.create("/foo/bar/baz").relativeTo("/foo"));
+    assertPath("baz", PathFragment.create("foo/bar/baz").relativeTo("foo/bar"));
+    assertPath("baz", PathFragment.create("/foo/bar/baz").relativeTo("/foo/bar"));
+    assertPath("foo", PathFragment.create("/foo").relativeTo("/"));
+    assertPath("foo", PathFragment.create("foo").relativeTo(""));
+    assertPath("foo/bar", PathFragment.create("foo/bar").relativeTo(""));
 
     checkRelativeTo("foo/bar/baz", "foo");
     checkRelativeTo("/foo/bar/baz", "/foo");
@@ -117,26 +122,26 @@ public class PathFragmentTest {
 
   @Test
   public void testIsAbsolute() {
-    assertTrue(new PathFragment("/absolute/test").isAbsolute());
-    assertFalse(new PathFragment("relative/test").isAbsolute());
-    assertTrue(new PathFragment(new File("/absolute/test")).isAbsolute());
-    assertFalse(new PathFragment(new File("relative/test")).isAbsolute());
+    assertTrue(PathFragment.create("/absolute/test").isAbsolute());
+    assertFalse(PathFragment.create("relative/test").isAbsolute());
+    assertTrue(PathFragment.create(new File("/absolute/test")).isAbsolute());
+    assertFalse(PathFragment.create(new File("relative/test")).isAbsolute());
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testIsNormalized() {
-    assertTrue(new PathFragment("/absolute/path").isNormalized());
-    assertTrue(new PathFragment("some//path").isNormalized());
-    assertFalse(new PathFragment("some/./path").isNormalized());
-    assertFalse(new PathFragment("../some/path").isNormalized());
-    assertFalse(new PathFragment("some/other/../path").isNormalized());
-    assertTrue(new PathFragment("some/other//tricky..path..").isNormalized());
-    assertTrue(new PathFragment("/some/other//tricky..path..").isNormalized());
+    assertTrue(PathFragment.create("/absolute/path").isNormalized());
+    assertTrue(PathFragment.create("some//path").isNormalized());
+    assertFalse(PathFragment.create("some/./path").isNormalized());
+    assertFalse(PathFragment.create("../some/path").isNormalized());
+    assertFalse(PathFragment.create("some/other/../path").isNormalized());
+    assertTrue(PathFragment.create("some/other//tricky..path..").isNormalized());
+    assertTrue(PathFragment.create("/some/other//tricky..path..").isNormalized());
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testRootNodeReturnsRootString() {
-    PathFragment rootFragment = new PathFragment("/");
+    PathFragment rootFragment = PathFragment.create("/");
     assertEquals("/", rootFragment.getPathString());
   }
 
@@ -144,27 +149,27 @@ public class PathFragmentTest {
   public void testGetPathFragmentDoesNotNormalize() {
     String nonCanonicalPath = "/a/weird/noncanonical/../path/.";
     assertEquals(nonCanonicalPath,
-        new PathFragment(nonCanonicalPath).getPathString());
+        PathFragment.create(nonCanonicalPath).getPathString());
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testGetRelative() {
-    assertEquals("a/b", new PathFragment("a").getRelative("b").getPathString());
-    assertEquals("a/b/c/d", new PathFragment("a/b").getRelative("c/d").getPathString());
-    assertEquals("/a/b", new PathFragment("c/d").getRelative("/a/b").getPathString());
-    assertEquals("a", new PathFragment("a").getRelative("").getPathString());
-    assertEquals("/", new PathFragment("/").getRelative("").getPathString());
+    assertEquals("a/b", PathFragment.create("a").getRelative("b").getPathString());
+    assertEquals("a/b/c/d", PathFragment.create("a/b").getRelative("c/d").getPathString());
+    assertEquals("/a/b", PathFragment.create("c/d").getRelative("/a/b").getPathString());
+    assertEquals("a", PathFragment.create("a").getRelative("").getPathString());
+    assertEquals("/", PathFragment.create("/").getRelative("").getPathString());
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testGetChildWorks() {
-    PathFragment pf = new PathFragment("../some/path");
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment("../some/path/hi"), pf.getChild("hi"));
+    PathFragment pf = PathFragment.create("../some/path");
+    assertEquals(PathFragment.create("../some/path/hi"), pf.getChild("hi"));
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testGetChildRejectsInvalidBaseNames() {
-    PathFragment pf = new PathFragment("../some/path");
+    PathFragment pf = PathFragment.create("../some/path");
     assertGetChildFails(pf, ".");
     assertGetChildFails(pf, "..");
     assertGetChildFails(pf, "x/y");
@@ -182,8 +187,14 @@ public class PathFragmentTest {
 
   // Tests after here test the canonicalization
   private void assertRegular(String expected, String actual) {
-    assertEquals(expected, new PathFragment(actual).getPathString()); // compare string forms
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment(expected), new PathFragment(actual)); // compare fragment forms
+    // compare string forms
+    assertEquals(
+        expected,
+        PathFragment.create(actual).getPathString());
+    // compare fragment forms
+    assertEquals(
+        PathFragment.create(expected),
+        PathFragment.create(actual));
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -218,19 +229,19 @@ public class PathFragmentTest {
 
   @Test
   public void testGetParentDirectory() {
-    PathFragment fooBarWiz = new PathFragment("foo/bar/wiz");
-    PathFragment fooBar = new PathFragment("foo/bar");
-    PathFragment foo = new PathFragment("foo");
-    PathFragment empty = new PathFragment("");
+    PathFragment fooBarWiz = PathFragment.create("foo/bar/wiz");
+    PathFragment fooBar = PathFragment.create("foo/bar");
+    PathFragment foo = PathFragment.create("foo");
+    PathFragment empty = PathFragment.create("");
     assertEquals(fooBar, fooBarWiz.getParentDirectory());
     assertEquals(foo, fooBar.getParentDirectory());
     assertEquals(empty, foo.getParentDirectory());
     assertNull(empty.getParentDirectory());
 
-    PathFragment fooBarWizAbs = new PathFragment("/foo/bar/wiz");
-    PathFragment fooBarAbs = new PathFragment("/foo/bar");
-    PathFragment fooAbs = new PathFragment("/foo");
-    PathFragment rootAbs = new PathFragment("/");
+    PathFragment fooBarWizAbs = PathFragment.create("/foo/bar/wiz");
+    PathFragment fooBarAbs = PathFragment.create("/foo/bar");
+    PathFragment fooAbs = PathFragment.create("/foo");
+    PathFragment rootAbs = PathFragment.create("/");
     assertEquals(fooBarAbs, fooBarWizAbs.getParentDirectory());
     assertEquals(fooAbs, fooBarAbs.getParentDirectory());
     assertEquals(rootAbs, fooAbs.getParentDirectory());
@@ -238,60 +249,60 @@ public class PathFragmentTest {
 
     // Note, this is surprising but correct behavior:
     assertEquals(fooBarAbs,
-                 new PathFragment("/foo/bar/..").getParentDirectory());
+                 PathFragment.create("/foo/bar/..").getParentDirectory());
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testSegmentsCount() {
-    assertEquals(2, new PathFragment("foo/bar").segmentCount());
-    assertEquals(2, new PathFragment("/foo/bar").segmentCount());
-    assertEquals(2, new PathFragment("foo//bar").segmentCount());
-    assertEquals(2, new PathFragment("/foo//bar").segmentCount());
-    assertEquals(1, new PathFragment("foo/").segmentCount());
-    assertEquals(1, new PathFragment("/foo/").segmentCount());
-    assertEquals(1, new PathFragment("foo").segmentCount());
-    assertEquals(1, new PathFragment("/foo").segmentCount());
-    assertEquals(0, new PathFragment("/").segmentCount());
-    assertEquals(0, new PathFragment("").segmentCount());
+    assertEquals(2, PathFragment.create("foo/bar").segmentCount());
+    assertEquals(2, PathFragment.create("/foo/bar").segmentCount());
+    assertEquals(2, PathFragment.create("foo//bar").segmentCount());
+    assertEquals(2, PathFragment.create("/foo//bar").segmentCount());
+    assertEquals(1, PathFragment.create("foo/").segmentCount());
+    assertEquals(1, PathFragment.create("/foo/").segmentCount());
+    assertEquals(1, PathFragment.create("foo").segmentCount());
+    assertEquals(1, PathFragment.create("/foo").segmentCount());
+    assertEquals(0, PathFragment.create("/").segmentCount());
+    assertEquals(0, PathFragment.create("").segmentCount());
   }
 
 
   @Test
   public void testGetSegment() {
-    assertEquals("foo", new PathFragment("foo/bar").getSegment(0));
-    assertEquals("bar", new PathFragment("foo/bar").getSegment(1));
-    assertEquals("foo", new PathFragment("/foo/bar").getSegment(0));
-    assertEquals("bar", new PathFragment("/foo/bar").getSegment(1));
-    assertEquals("foo", new PathFragment("foo/").getSegment(0));
-    assertEquals("foo", new PathFragment("/foo/").getSegment(0));
-    assertEquals("foo", new PathFragment("foo").getSegment(0));
-    assertEquals("foo", new PathFragment("/foo").getSegment(0));
+    assertEquals("foo", PathFragment.create("foo/bar").getSegment(0));
+    assertEquals("bar", PathFragment.create("foo/bar").getSegment(1));
+    assertEquals("foo", PathFragment.create("/foo/bar").getSegment(0));
+    assertEquals("bar", PathFragment.create("/foo/bar").getSegment(1));
+    assertEquals("foo", PathFragment.create("foo/").getSegment(0));
+    assertEquals("foo", PathFragment.create("/foo/").getSegment(0));
+    assertEquals("foo", PathFragment.create("foo").getSegment(0));
+    assertEquals("foo", PathFragment.create("/foo").getSegment(0));
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testBasename() throws Exception {
-    assertEquals("bar", new PathFragment("foo/bar").getBaseName());
-    assertEquals("bar", new PathFragment("/foo/bar").getBaseName());
-    assertEquals("foo", new PathFragment("foo/").getBaseName());
-    assertEquals("foo", new PathFragment("/foo/").getBaseName());
-    assertEquals("foo", new PathFragment("foo").getBaseName());
-    assertEquals("foo", new PathFragment("/foo").getBaseName());
-    assertThat(new PathFragment("/").getBaseName()).isEmpty();
-    assertThat(new PathFragment("").getBaseName()).isEmpty();
+    assertEquals("bar", PathFragment.create("foo/bar").getBaseName());
+    assertEquals("bar", PathFragment.create("/foo/bar").getBaseName());
+    assertEquals("foo", PathFragment.create("foo/").getBaseName());
+    assertEquals("foo", PathFragment.create("/foo/").getBaseName());
+    assertEquals("foo", PathFragment.create("foo").getBaseName());
+    assertEquals("foo", PathFragment.create("/foo").getBaseName());
+    assertThat(PathFragment.create("/").getBaseName()).isEmpty();
+    assertThat(PathFragment.create("").getBaseName()).isEmpty();
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testFileExtension() throws Exception {
-    assertThat(new PathFragment("foo.bar").getFileExtension()).isEqualTo("bar");
-    assertThat(new PathFragment("foo.barr").getFileExtension()).isEqualTo("barr");
-    assertThat(new PathFragment("foo.b").getFileExtension()).isEqualTo("b");
-    assertThat(new PathFragment("foo.").getFileExtension()).isEmpty();
-    assertThat(new PathFragment("foo").getFileExtension()).isEmpty();
-    assertThat(new PathFragment(".").getFileExtension()).isEmpty();
-    assertThat(new PathFragment("").getFileExtension()).isEmpty();
-    assertThat(new PathFragment("foo/bar.baz").getFileExtension()).isEqualTo("baz");
-    assertThat(new PathFragment("foo.bar.baz").getFileExtension()).isEqualTo("baz");
-    assertThat(new PathFragment("foo.bar/baz").getFileExtension()).isEmpty();
+    assertThat(PathFragment.create("foo.bar").getFileExtension()).isEqualTo("bar");
+    assertThat(PathFragment.create("foo.barr").getFileExtension()).isEqualTo("barr");
+    assertThat(PathFragment.create("foo.b").getFileExtension()).isEqualTo("b");
+    assertThat(PathFragment.create("foo.").getFileExtension()).isEmpty();
+    assertThat(PathFragment.create("foo").getFileExtension()).isEmpty();
+    assertThat(PathFragment.create(".").getFileExtension()).isEmpty();
+    assertThat(PathFragment.create("").getFileExtension()).isEmpty();
+    assertThat(PathFragment.create("foo/bar.baz").getFileExtension()).isEqualTo("baz");
+    assertThat(PathFragment.create("foo.bar.baz").getFileExtension()).isEqualTo("baz");
+    assertThat(PathFragment.create("foo.bar/baz").getFileExtension()).isEmpty();
   }
 
   private static void assertPath(String expected, PathFragment actual) {
@@ -300,66 +311,66 @@ public class PathFragmentTest {
 
   @Test
   public void testReplaceName() throws Exception {
-    assertPath("foo/baz", new PathFragment("foo/bar").replaceName("baz"));
-    assertPath("/foo/baz", new PathFragment("/foo/bar").replaceName("baz"));
-    assertPath("foo", new PathFragment("foo/bar").replaceName(""));
-    assertPath("baz", new PathFragment("foo/").replaceName("baz"));
-    assertPath("/baz", new PathFragment("/foo/").replaceName("baz"));
-    assertPath("baz", new PathFragment("foo").replaceName("baz"));
-    assertPath("/baz", new PathFragment("/foo").replaceName("baz"));
-    assertNull(new PathFragment("/").replaceName("baz"));
-    assertNull(new PathFragment("/").replaceName(""));
-    assertNull(new PathFragment("").replaceName("baz"));
-    assertNull(new PathFragment("").replaceName(""));
-
-    assertPath("foo/bar/baz", new PathFragment("foo/bar").replaceName("bar/baz"));
-    assertPath("foo/bar/baz", new PathFragment("foo/bar").replaceName("bar/baz/"));
+    assertPath("foo/baz", PathFragment.create("foo/bar").replaceName("baz"));
+    assertPath("/foo/baz", PathFragment.create("/foo/bar").replaceName("baz"));
+    assertPath("foo", PathFragment.create("foo/bar").replaceName(""));
+    assertPath("baz", PathFragment.create("foo/").replaceName("baz"));
+    assertPath("/baz", PathFragment.create("/foo/").replaceName("baz"));
+    assertPath("baz", PathFragment.create("foo").replaceName("baz"));
+    assertPath("/baz", PathFragment.create("/foo").replaceName("baz"));
+    assertNull(PathFragment.create("/").replaceName("baz"));
+    assertNull(PathFragment.create("/").replaceName(""));
+    assertNull(PathFragment.create("").replaceName("baz"));
+    assertNull(PathFragment.create("").replaceName(""));
+
+    assertPath("foo/bar/baz", PathFragment.create("foo/bar").replaceName("bar/baz"));
+    assertPath("foo/bar/baz", PathFragment.create("foo/bar").replaceName("bar/baz/"));
 
     // Absolute path arguments will clobber the original path.
-    assertPath("/absolute", new PathFragment("foo/bar").replaceName("/absolute"));
-    assertPath("/", new PathFragment("foo/bar").replaceName("/"));
+    assertPath("/absolute", PathFragment.create("foo/bar").replaceName("/absolute"));
+    assertPath("/", PathFragment.create("foo/bar").replaceName("/"));
   }
   @Test
   public void testSubFragment() throws Exception {
     assertPath("/foo/bar/baz",
-        new PathFragment("/foo/bar/baz").subFragment(0, 3));
+        PathFragment.create("/foo/bar/baz").subFragment(0, 3));
     assertPath("foo/bar/baz",
-        new PathFragment("foo/bar/baz").subFragment(0, 3));
+        PathFragment.create("foo/bar/baz").subFragment(0, 3));
     assertPath("/foo/bar",
-               new PathFragment("/foo/bar/baz").subFragment(0, 2));
+               PathFragment.create("/foo/bar/baz").subFragment(0, 2));
     assertPath("bar/baz",
-               new PathFragment("/foo/bar/baz").subFragment(1, 3));
+               PathFragment.create("/foo/bar/baz").subFragment(1, 3));
     assertPath("/foo",
-               new PathFragment("/foo/bar/baz").subFragment(0, 1));
+               PathFragment.create("/foo/bar/baz").subFragment(0, 1));
     assertPath("bar",
-               new PathFragment("/foo/bar/baz").subFragment(1, 2));
-    assertPath("baz", new PathFragment("/foo/bar/baz").subFragment(2, 3));
-    assertPath("/", new PathFragment("/foo/bar/baz").subFragment(0, 0));
-    assertPath("", new PathFragment("foo/bar/baz").subFragment(0, 0));
-    assertPath("", new PathFragment("foo/bar/baz").subFragment(1, 1));
+               PathFragment.create("/foo/bar/baz").subFragment(1, 2));
+    assertPath("baz", PathFragment.create("/foo/bar/baz").subFragment(2, 3));
+    assertPath("/", PathFragment.create("/foo/bar/baz").subFragment(0, 0));
+    assertPath("", PathFragment.create("foo/bar/baz").subFragment(0, 0));
+    assertPath("", PathFragment.create("foo/bar/baz").subFragment(1, 1));
     try {
-      fail("unexpectedly succeeded: " + new PathFragment("foo/bar/baz").subFragment(3, 2));
+      fail("unexpectedly succeeded: " + PathFragment.create("foo/bar/baz").subFragment(3, 2));
     } catch (IndexOutOfBoundsException e) { /* Expected. */ }
     try {
-      fail("unexpectedly succeeded: " + new PathFragment("foo/bar/baz").subFragment(4, 4));
+      fail("unexpectedly succeeded: " + PathFragment.create("foo/bar/baz").subFragment(4, 4));
     } catch (IndexOutOfBoundsException e) { /* Expected. */ }
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testStartsWith() {
-    PathFragment foobar = new PathFragment("/foo/bar");
-    PathFragment foobarRelative = new PathFragment("foo/bar");
+    PathFragment foobar = PathFragment.create("/foo/bar");
+    PathFragment foobarRelative = PathFragment.create("foo/bar");
 
     // (path, prefix) => true
     assertTrue(foobar.startsWith(foobar));
-    assertTrue(foobar.startsWith(new PathFragment("/")));
-    assertTrue(foobar.startsWith(new PathFragment("/foo")));
-    assertTrue(foobar.startsWith(new PathFragment("/foo/")));
-    assertTrue(foobar.startsWith(new PathFragment("/foo/bar/")));  // Includes trailing slash.
+    assertTrue(foobar.startsWith(PathFragment.create("/")));
+    assertTrue(foobar.startsWith(PathFragment.create("/foo")));
+    assertTrue(foobar.startsWith(PathFragment.create("/foo/")));
+    assertTrue(foobar.startsWith(PathFragment.create("/foo/bar/")));  // Includes trailing slash.
 
     // (prefix, path) => false
-    assertFalse(new PathFragment("/foo").startsWith(foobar));
-    assertFalse(new PathFragment("/").startsWith(foobar));
+    assertFalse(PathFragment.create("/foo").startsWith(foobar));
+    assertFalse(PathFragment.create("/").startsWith(foobar));
 
     // (absolute, relative) => false
     assertFalse(foobar.startsWith(foobarRelative));
@@ -367,40 +378,40 @@ public class PathFragmentTest {
 
     // (relative path, relative prefix) => true
     assertTrue(foobarRelative.startsWith(foobarRelative));
-    assertTrue(foobarRelative.startsWith(new PathFragment("foo")));
-    assertTrue(foobarRelative.startsWith(new PathFragment("")));
+    assertTrue(foobarRelative.startsWith(PathFragment.create("foo")));
+    assertTrue(foobarRelative.startsWith(PathFragment.create("")));
 
     // (path, sibling) => false
-    assertFalse(new PathFragment("/foo/wiz").startsWith(foobar));
-    assertFalse(foobar.startsWith(new PathFragment("/foo/wiz")));
+    assertFalse(PathFragment.create("/foo/wiz").startsWith(foobar));
+    assertFalse(foobar.startsWith(PathFragment.create("/foo/wiz")));
 
     // Does not normalize.
-    PathFragment foodotbar = new PathFragment("foo/./bar");
+    PathFragment foodotbar = PathFragment.create("foo/./bar");
     assertTrue(foodotbar.startsWith(foodotbar));
-    assertTrue(foodotbar.startsWith(new PathFragment("foo/.")));
-    assertTrue(foodotbar.startsWith(new PathFragment("foo/./")));
-    assertTrue(foodotbar.startsWith(new PathFragment("foo/./bar")));
-    assertFalse(foodotbar.startsWith(new PathFragment("foo/bar")));
+    assertTrue(foodotbar.startsWith(PathFragment.create("foo/.")));
+    assertTrue(foodotbar.startsWith(PathFragment.create("foo/./")));
+    assertTrue(foodotbar.startsWith(PathFragment.create("foo/./bar")));
+    assertFalse(foodotbar.startsWith(PathFragment.create("foo/bar")));
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testFilterPathsStartingWith() {
     // Retains everything:
     ImmutableSet<PathFragment> allUnderA = toPathsSet("a/b", "a/c", "a/d");
-    assertThat(PathFragment.filterPathsStartingWith(allUnderA, new PathFragment("a")))
+    assertThat(PathFragment.filterPathsStartingWith(allUnderA, PathFragment.create("a")))
         .containsExactlyElementsIn(allUnderA);
 
     // Retains some but not others:
     ImmutableSet<PathFragment> mixed = toPathsSet("a/b", "a/c", "b/c");
     assertThat(PathFragment.filterPathsStartingWith(mixed,
-        new PathFragment("a"))).containsExactlyElementsIn(toPathsSet("a/b", "a/c"));
+        PathFragment.create("a"))).containsExactlyElementsIn(toPathsSet("a/b", "a/c"));
 
     // Retains none:
-    assertThat(PathFragment.filterPathsStartingWith(allUnderA, new PathFragment("b"))).isEmpty();
+    assertThat(PathFragment.filterPathsStartingWith(allUnderA, PathFragment.create("b"))).isEmpty();
 
     // Retains paths equal to the startingWithPath:
     assertThat(PathFragment.filterPathsStartingWith(toPathsSet("a"),
-        new PathFragment("a"))).containsExactlyElementsIn(toPathsSet("a"));
+        PathFragment.create("a"))).containsExactlyElementsIn(toPathsSet("a"));
 
     // Retains everything when startingWithPath is the empty fragment:
     assertThat(PathFragment.filterPathsStartingWith(mixed, PathFragment.EMPTY_FRAGMENT))
@@ -408,23 +419,23 @@ public class PathFragmentTest {
 
     // Supports multi-segment startingWithPaths:
     assertThat(PathFragment.filterPathsStartingWith(toPathsSet("a/b/c", "a/b/d", "a/c/d"),
-        new PathFragment("a/b"))).containsExactlyElementsIn(toPathsSet("a/b/c", "a/b/d"));
+        PathFragment.create("a/b"))).containsExactlyElementsIn(toPathsSet("a/b/c", "a/b/d"));
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testCheckAllPathsStartWithButAreNotEqualTo() {
     // Check passes:
     PathFragment.checkAllPathsAreUnder(toPathsSet("a/b", "a/c"),
-        new PathFragment("a"));
+        PathFragment.create("a"));
 
     // Check trivially passes:
     PathFragment.checkAllPathsAreUnder(ImmutableList.<PathFragment>of(),
-        new PathFragment("a"));
+        PathFragment.create("a"));
 
     // Check fails when some path does not start with startingWithPath:
     try {
       PathFragment.checkAllPathsAreUnder(toPathsSet("a/b", "b/c"),
-          new PathFragment("a"));
+          PathFragment.create("a"));
       fail();
     } catch (IllegalArgumentException expected) {
     }
@@ -432,7 +443,7 @@ public class PathFragmentTest {
     // Check fails when some path is equal to startingWithPath:
     try {
       PathFragment.checkAllPathsAreUnder(toPathsSet("a/b", "a"),
-          new PathFragment("a"));
+          PathFragment.create("a"));
       fail();
     } catch (IllegalArgumentException expected) {
     }
@@ -440,24 +451,24 @@ public class PathFragmentTest {
 
   @Test
   public void testEndsWith() {
-    PathFragment foobar = new PathFragment("/foo/bar");
-    PathFragment foobarRelative = new PathFragment("foo/bar");
+    PathFragment foobar = PathFragment.create("/foo/bar");
+    PathFragment foobarRelative = PathFragment.create("foo/bar");
 
     // (path, suffix) => true
     assertTrue(foobar.endsWith(foobar));
-    assertTrue(foobar.endsWith(new PathFragment("bar")));
-    assertTrue(foobar.endsWith(new PathFragment("foo/bar")));
-    assertTrue(foobar.endsWith(new PathFragment("/foo/bar")));
-    assertFalse(foobar.endsWith(new PathFragment("/bar")));
+    assertTrue(foobar.endsWith(PathFragment.create("bar")));
+    assertTrue(foobar.endsWith(PathFragment.create("foo/bar")));
+    assertTrue(foobar.endsWith(PathFragment.create("/foo/bar")));
+    assertFalse(foobar.endsWith(PathFragment.create("/bar")));
 
     // (prefix, path) => false
-    assertFalse(new PathFragment("/foo").endsWith(foobar));
-    assertFalse(new PathFragment("/").endsWith(foobar));
+    assertFalse(PathFragment.create("/foo").endsWith(foobar));
+    assertFalse(PathFragment.create("/").endsWith(foobar));
 
     // (suffix, path) => false
-    assertFalse(new PathFragment("/bar").endsWith(foobar));
-    assertFalse(new PathFragment("bar").endsWith(foobar));
-    assertFalse(new PathFragment("").endsWith(foobar));
+    assertFalse(PathFragment.create("/bar").endsWith(foobar));
+    assertFalse(PathFragment.create("bar").endsWith(foobar));
+    assertFalse(PathFragment.create("").endsWith(foobar));
 
     // (absolute, relative) => true
     assertTrue(foobar.endsWith(foobarRelative));
@@ -467,18 +478,18 @@ public class PathFragmentTest {
 
     // (relative path, relative prefix) => true
     assertTrue(foobarRelative.endsWith(foobarRelative));
-    assertTrue(foobarRelative.endsWith(new PathFragment("bar")));
-    assertTrue(foobarRelative.endsWith(new PathFragment("")));
+    assertTrue(foobarRelative.endsWith(PathFragment.create("bar")));
+    assertTrue(foobarRelative.endsWith(PathFragment.create("")));
 
     // (path, sibling) => false
-    assertFalse(new PathFragment("/foo/wiz").endsWith(foobar));
-    assertFalse(foobar.endsWith(new PathFragment("/foo/wiz")));
+    assertFalse(PathFragment.create("/foo/wiz").endsWith(foobar));
+    assertFalse(foobar.endsWith(PathFragment.create("/foo/wiz")));
   }
 
   static List<PathFragment> toPaths(List<String> strs) {
     List<PathFragment> paths = Lists.newArrayList();
     for (String s : strs) {
-      paths.add(new PathFragment(s));
+      paths.add(PathFragment.create(s));
     }
     return paths;
   }
@@ -486,7 +497,7 @@ public class PathFragmentTest {
   static ImmutableSet<PathFragment> toPathsSet(String... strs) {
     ImmutableSet.Builder<PathFragment> builder = ImmutableSet.builder();
     for (String str : strs) {
-      builder.add(new PathFragment(str));
+      builder.add(PathFragment.create(str));
     }
     return builder.build();
   }
@@ -528,24 +539,24 @@ public class PathFragmentTest {
 
   @Test
   public void testGetSafePathString() {
-    assertEquals("/", new PathFragment("/").getSafePathString());
-    assertEquals("/abc", new PathFragment("/abc").getSafePathString());
-    assertEquals(".", new PathFragment("").getSafePathString());
+    assertEquals("/", PathFragment.create("/").getSafePathString());
+    assertEquals("/abc", PathFragment.create("/abc").getSafePathString());
+    assertEquals(".", PathFragment.create("").getSafePathString());
     assertEquals(".", PathFragment.EMPTY_FRAGMENT.getSafePathString());
-    assertEquals("abc/def", new PathFragment("abc/def").getSafePathString());
+    assertEquals("abc/def", PathFragment.create("abc/def").getSafePathString());
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testNormalize() {
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment("/a/b"), new PathFragment("/a/b").normalize());
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment("/a/b"), new PathFragment("/a/./b").normalize());
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment("/b"), new PathFragment("/a/../b").normalize());
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment("a/b"), new PathFragment("a/b").normalize());
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment("../b"), new PathFragment("a/../../b").normalize());
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment(".."), new PathFragment("a/../..").normalize());
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment("b"), new PathFragment("a/../b").normalize());
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment("a/b"), new PathFragment("a/b/../b").normalize());
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment("/.."), new PathFragment("/..").normalize());
+    assertEquals(PathFragment.create("/a/b"), PathFragment.create("/a/b").normalize());
+    assertEquals(PathFragment.create("/a/b"), PathFragment.create("/a/./b").normalize());
+    assertEquals(PathFragment.create("/b"), PathFragment.create("/a/../b").normalize());
+    assertEquals(PathFragment.create("a/b"), PathFragment.create("a/b").normalize());
+    assertEquals(PathFragment.create("../b"), PathFragment.create("a/../../b").normalize());
+    assertEquals(PathFragment.create(".."), PathFragment.create("a/../..").normalize());
+    assertEquals(PathFragment.create("b"), PathFragment.create("a/../b").normalize());
+    assertEquals(PathFragment.create("a/b"), PathFragment.create("a/b/../b").normalize());
+    assertEquals(PathFragment.create("/.."), PathFragment.create("/..").normalize());
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -564,7 +575,7 @@ public class PathFragmentTest {
   }
 
   private void checkSerialization(String pathFragmentString, int expectedSize) throws Exception {
-    PathFragment a = new PathFragment(pathFragmentString);
+    PathFragment a = PathFragment.create(pathFragmentString);
     byte[] sa = TestUtils.serializeObject(a);
     assertEquals(expectedSize, sa.length);
 
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/PathFragmentWindowsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/PathFragmentWindowsTest.java
index 9506202d16..d22080901b 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/PathFragmentWindowsTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/PathFragmentWindowsTest.java
@@ -34,47 +34,47 @@ public class PathFragmentWindowsTest {
 
   @Test
   public void testWindowsSeparator() {
-    assertEquals("bar/baz", new PathFragment("bar\\baz").toString());
-    assertEquals("C:/bar/baz", new PathFragment("c:\\bar\\baz").toString());
+    assertEquals("bar/baz", PathFragment.create("bar\\baz").toString());
+    assertEquals("C:/bar/baz", PathFragment.create("c:\\bar\\baz").toString());
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testIsAbsoluteWindows() {
-    assertTrue(new PathFragment("C:/").isAbsolute());
-    assertTrue(new PathFragment("C:/").isAbsolute());
-    assertTrue(new PathFragment("C:/foo").isAbsolute());
-    assertTrue(new PathFragment("d:/foo/bar").isAbsolute());
+    assertTrue(PathFragment.create("C:/").isAbsolute());
+    assertTrue(PathFragment.create("C:/").isAbsolute());
+    assertTrue(PathFragment.create("C:/foo").isAbsolute());
+    assertTrue(PathFragment.create("d:/foo/bar").isAbsolute());
 
-    assertFalse(new PathFragment("*:/").isAbsolute());
+    assertFalse(PathFragment.create("*:/").isAbsolute());
 
     // C: is not an absolute path, it points to the current active directory on drive C:.
-    assertFalse(new PathFragment("C:").isAbsolute());
-    assertFalse(new PathFragment("C:foo").isAbsolute());
+    assertFalse(PathFragment.create("C:").isAbsolute());
+    assertFalse(PathFragment.create("C:foo").isAbsolute());
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testAbsoluteAndAbsoluteLookingPaths() {
-    PathFragment p1 = new PathFragment("/c");
+    PathFragment p1 = PathFragment.create("/c");
     assertThat(p1.isAbsolute()).isTrue();
     assertThat(p1.getDriveLetter()).isEqualTo('\0');
     assertThat(p1.getSegments()).containsExactly("c");
 
-    PathFragment p2 = new PathFragment("/c/");
+    PathFragment p2 = PathFragment.create("/c/");
     assertThat(p2.isAbsolute()).isTrue();
     assertThat(p2.getDriveLetter()).isEqualTo('\0');
     assertThat(p2.getSegments()).containsExactly("c");
 
-    PathFragment p3 = new PathFragment("C:/");
+    PathFragment p3 = PathFragment.create("C:/");
     assertThat(p3.isAbsolute()).isTrue();
     assertThat(p3.getDriveLetter()).isEqualTo('C');
     assertThat(p3.getSegments()).isEmpty();
 
-    PathFragment p4 = new PathFragment("C:");
+    PathFragment p4 = PathFragment.create("C:");
     assertThat(p4.isAbsolute()).isFalse();
     assertThat(p4.getDriveLetter()).isEqualTo('C');
     assertThat(p4.getSegments()).isEmpty();
 
-    PathFragment p5 = new PathFragment("/c:");
+    PathFragment p5 = PathFragment.create("/c:");
     assertThat(p5.isAbsolute()).isTrue();
     assertThat(p5.getDriveLetter()).isEqualTo('\0');
     assertThat(p5.getSegments()).containsExactly("c:");
@@ -90,39 +90,39 @@ public class PathFragmentWindowsTest {
 
   @Test
   public void testIsAbsoluteWindowsBackslash() {
-    assertTrue(new PathFragment(new File("C:\\blah")).isAbsolute());
-    assertTrue(new PathFragment(new File("C:\\")).isAbsolute());
-    assertTrue(new PathFragment(new File("\\blah")).isAbsolute());
-    assertTrue(new PathFragment(new File("\\")).isAbsolute());
+    assertTrue(PathFragment.create(new File("C:\\blah")).isAbsolute());
+    assertTrue(PathFragment.create(new File("C:\\")).isAbsolute());
+    assertTrue(PathFragment.create(new File("\\blah")).isAbsolute());
+    assertTrue(PathFragment.create(new File("\\")).isAbsolute());
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testIsNormalizedWindows() {
-    assertTrue(new PathFragment("C:/").isNormalized());
-    assertTrue(new PathFragment("C:/absolute/path").isNormalized());
-    assertFalse(new PathFragment("C:/absolute/./path").isNormalized());
-    assertFalse(new PathFragment("C:/absolute/../path").isNormalized());
+    assertTrue(PathFragment.create("C:/").isNormalized());
+    assertTrue(PathFragment.create("C:/absolute/path").isNormalized());
+    assertFalse(PathFragment.create("C:/absolute/./path").isNormalized());
+    assertFalse(PathFragment.create("C:/absolute/../path").isNormalized());
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testRootNodeReturnsRootStringWindows() {
-    PathFragment rootFragment = new PathFragment("C:/");
+    PathFragment rootFragment = PathFragment.create("C:/");
     assertEquals("C:/", rootFragment.getPathString());
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testGetRelativeWindows() {
-    assertEquals("C:/a/b", new PathFragment("C:/a").getRelative("b").getPathString());
-    assertEquals("C:/a/b/c/d", new PathFragment("C:/a/b").getRelative("c/d").getPathString());
-    assertEquals("C:/b", new PathFragment("C:/a").getRelative("C:/b").getPathString());
-    assertEquals("C:/c/d", new PathFragment("C:/a/b").getRelative("C:/c/d").getPathString());
-    assertEquals("C:/b", new PathFragment("a").getRelative("C:/b").getPathString());
-    assertEquals("C:/c/d", new PathFragment("a/b").getRelative("C:/c/d").getPathString());
+    assertEquals("C:/a/b", PathFragment.create("C:/a").getRelative("b").getPathString());
+    assertEquals("C:/a/b/c/d", PathFragment.create("C:/a/b").getRelative("c/d").getPathString());
+    assertEquals("C:/b", PathFragment.create("C:/a").getRelative("C:/b").getPathString());
+    assertEquals("C:/c/d", PathFragment.create("C:/a/b").getRelative("C:/c/d").getPathString());
+    assertEquals("C:/b", PathFragment.create("a").getRelative("C:/b").getPathString());
+    assertEquals("C:/c/d", PathFragment.create("a/b").getRelative("C:/c/d").getPathString());
   }
 
   private void assertGetRelative(String path, String relative, PathFragment expected)
       throws Exception {
-    PathFragment actual = new PathFragment(path).getRelative(relative);
+    PathFragment actual = PathFragment.create(path).getRelative(relative);
     assertThat(actual.getPathString()).isEqualTo(expected.getPathString());
     assertThat(actual).isEqualTo(expected);
     assertThat(actual.getDriveLetter()).isEqualTo(expected.getDriveLetter());
@@ -131,8 +131,8 @@ public class PathFragmentWindowsTest {
 
   private void assertRelativeTo(String path, String relativeTo, String... expectedPathSegments)
       throws Exception {
-    PathFragment expected = new PathFragment('\0', false, expectedPathSegments);
-    PathFragment actual = new PathFragment(path).relativeTo(relativeTo);
+    PathFragment expected = PathFragment.createNoClone('\0', false, expectedPathSegments);
+    PathFragment actual = PathFragment.create(path).relativeTo(relativeTo);
     assertThat(actual.getPathString()).isEqualTo(expected.getPathString());
     assertThat(actual).isEqualTo(expected);
     assertThat(actual.getDriveLetter()).isEqualTo(expected.getDriveLetter());
@@ -141,7 +141,7 @@ public class PathFragmentWindowsTest {
 
   private void assertCantComputeRelativeTo(String path, String relativeTo) throws Exception {
     try {
-      new PathFragment(path).relativeTo(relativeTo);
+      PathFragment.create(path).relativeTo(relativeTo);
       Assert.fail("expected failure");
     } catch (Exception e) {
       assertThat(e.getMessage()).contains("is not beneath");
@@ -149,7 +149,7 @@ public class PathFragmentWindowsTest {
   }
 
   private static PathFragment makePath(char drive, boolean absolute, String... segments) {
-    return new PathFragment(drive, absolute, segments);
+    return PathFragment.createNoClone(drive, absolute, segments);
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -193,14 +193,14 @@ public class PathFragmentWindowsTest {
 
   @Test
   public void testGetChildWorks() {
-    PathFragment pf = new PathFragment("../some/path");
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment("../some/path/hi"), pf.getChild("hi"));
+    PathFragment pf = PathFragment.create("../some/path");
+    assertEquals(PathFragment.create("../some/path/hi"), pf.getChild("hi"));
   }
 
   // Tests after here test the canonicalization
   private void assertRegular(String expected, String actual) {
-    PathFragment exp = new PathFragment(expected);
-    PathFragment act = new PathFragment(actual);
+    PathFragment exp = PathFragment.create(expected);
+    PathFragment act = PathFragment.create(actual);
     assertThat(exp.getPathString()).isEqualTo(expected);
     assertThat(act.getPathString()).isEqualTo(expected);
     assertThat(act).isEqualTo(exp);
@@ -233,18 +233,18 @@ public class PathFragmentWindowsTest {
     // information to the path itself.
     assertAllEqual(
         PathFragment.EMPTY_FRAGMENT,
-        new PathFragment("C:"),
-        new PathFragment("D:"),
-        new PathFragment('\0', false, new String[0]),
-        new PathFragment('C', false, new String[0]),
-        new PathFragment('D', false, new String[0]));
-    assertAllEqual(new PathFragment("/c"), new PathFragment("/c/"));
-    assertThat(new PathFragment("C:/")).isNotEqualTo(new PathFragment("/c"));
-    assertThat(new PathFragment("C:/foo")).isNotEqualTo(new PathFragment("/c/foo"));
+        PathFragment.create("C:"),
+        PathFragment.create("D:"),
+        PathFragment.createNoClone('\0', false, new String[0]),
+        PathFragment.createNoClone('C', false, new String[0]),
+        PathFragment.createNoClone('D', false, new String[0]));
+    assertAllEqual(PathFragment.create("/c"), PathFragment.create("/c/"));
+    assertThat(PathFragment.create("C:/")).isNotEqualTo(PathFragment.create("/c"));
+    assertThat(PathFragment.create("C:/foo")).isNotEqualTo(PathFragment.create("/c/foo"));
 
-    assertThat(new PathFragment("C:/")).isNotEqualTo(new PathFragment("C:"));
-    assertThat(new PathFragment("C:/").getPathString())
-        .isNotEqualTo(new PathFragment("C:").getPathString());
+    assertThat(PathFragment.create("C:/")).isNotEqualTo(PathFragment.create("C:"));
+    assertThat(PathFragment.create("C:/").getPathString())
+        .isNotEqualTo(PathFragment.create("C:").getPathString());
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -271,10 +271,10 @@ public class PathFragmentWindowsTest {
 
   @Test
   public void testGetParentDirectoryWindows() {
-    PathFragment fooBarWizAbs = new PathFragment("C:/foo/bar/wiz");
-    PathFragment fooBarAbs = new PathFragment("C:/foo/bar");
-    PathFragment fooAbs = new PathFragment("C:/foo");
-    PathFragment rootAbs = new PathFragment("C:/");
+    PathFragment fooBarWizAbs = PathFragment.create("C:/foo/bar/wiz");
+    PathFragment fooBarAbs = PathFragment.create("C:/foo/bar");
+    PathFragment fooAbs = PathFragment.create("C:/foo");
+    PathFragment rootAbs = PathFragment.create("C:/");
     assertEquals(fooBarAbs, fooBarWizAbs.getParentDirectory());
     assertEquals(fooAbs, fooBarAbs.getParentDirectory());
     assertEquals(rootAbs, fooAbs.getParentDirectory());
@@ -282,29 +282,29 @@ public class PathFragmentWindowsTest {
 
     // Note, this is suprising but correct behaviour:
     assertEquals(fooBarAbs,
-                 new PathFragment("C:/foo/bar/..").getParentDirectory());
+                 PathFragment.create("C:/foo/bar/..").getParentDirectory());
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testSegmentsCountWindows() {
-    assertEquals(1, new PathFragment("C:/foo").segmentCount());
-    assertEquals(0, new PathFragment("C:/").segmentCount());
+    assertEquals(1, PathFragment.create("C:/foo").segmentCount());
+    assertEquals(0, PathFragment.create("C:/").segmentCount());
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testGetSegmentWindows() {
-    assertEquals("foo", new PathFragment("C:/foo/bar").getSegment(0));
-    assertEquals("bar", new PathFragment("C:/foo/bar").getSegment(1));
-    assertEquals("foo", new PathFragment("C:/foo/").getSegment(0));
-    assertEquals("foo", new PathFragment("C:/foo").getSegment(0));
+    assertEquals("foo", PathFragment.create("C:/foo/bar").getSegment(0));
+    assertEquals("bar", PathFragment.create("C:/foo/bar").getSegment(1));
+    assertEquals("foo", PathFragment.create("C:/foo/").getSegment(0));
+    assertEquals("foo", PathFragment.create("C:/foo").getSegment(0));
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testBasenameWindows() throws Exception {
-    assertEquals("bar", new PathFragment("C:/foo/bar").getBaseName());
-    assertEquals("foo", new PathFragment("C:/foo").getBaseName());
+    assertEquals("bar", PathFragment.create("C:/foo/bar").getBaseName());
+    assertEquals("foo", PathFragment.create("C:/foo").getBaseName());
     // Never return the drive name as a basename.
-    assertThat(new PathFragment("C:/").getBaseName()).isEmpty();
+    assertThat(PathFragment.create("C:/").getBaseName()).isEmpty();
   }
 
   private static void assertPath(String expected, PathFragment actual) {
@@ -313,43 +313,43 @@ public class PathFragmentWindowsTest {
 
   @Test
   public void testReplaceNameWindows() throws Exception {
-    assertPath("C:/foo/baz", new PathFragment("C:/foo/bar").replaceName("baz"));
-    assertNull(new PathFragment("C:/").replaceName("baz"));
+    assertPath("C:/foo/baz", PathFragment.create("C:/foo/bar").replaceName("baz"));
+    assertNull(PathFragment.create("C:/").replaceName("baz"));
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testStartsWithWindows() {
-    assertTrue(new PathFragment("C:/foo/bar").startsWith(new PathFragment("C:/foo")));
-    assertTrue(new PathFragment("C:/foo/bar").startsWith(new PathFragment("C:/")));
-    assertTrue(new PathFragment("C:foo/bar").startsWith(new PathFragment("C:")));
-    assertTrue(new PathFragment("C:/").startsWith(new PathFragment("C:/")));
-    assertTrue(new PathFragment("C:").startsWith(new PathFragment("C:")));
+    assertTrue(PathFragment.create("C:/foo/bar").startsWith(PathFragment.create("C:/foo")));
+    assertTrue(PathFragment.create("C:/foo/bar").startsWith(PathFragment.create("C:/")));
+    assertTrue(PathFragment.create("C:foo/bar").startsWith(PathFragment.create("C:")));
+    assertTrue(PathFragment.create("C:/").startsWith(PathFragment.create("C:/")));
+    assertTrue(PathFragment.create("C:").startsWith(PathFragment.create("C:")));
 
     // The first path is absolute, the second is not.
-    assertFalse(new PathFragment("C:/foo/bar").startsWith(new PathFragment("C:")));
-    assertFalse(new PathFragment("C:/").startsWith(new PathFragment("C:")));
+    assertFalse(PathFragment.create("C:/foo/bar").startsWith(PathFragment.create("C:")));
+    assertFalse(PathFragment.create("C:/").startsWith(PathFragment.create("C:")));
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testEndsWithWindows() {
-    assertTrue(new PathFragment("C:/foo/bar").endsWith(new PathFragment("bar")));
-    assertTrue(new PathFragment("C:/foo/bar").endsWith(new PathFragment("foo/bar")));
-    assertTrue(new PathFragment("C:/foo/bar").endsWith(new PathFragment("C:/foo/bar")));
-    assertTrue(new PathFragment("C:/").endsWith(new PathFragment("C:/")));
+    assertTrue(PathFragment.create("C:/foo/bar").endsWith(PathFragment.create("bar")));
+    assertTrue(PathFragment.create("C:/foo/bar").endsWith(PathFragment.create("foo/bar")));
+    assertTrue(PathFragment.create("C:/foo/bar").endsWith(PathFragment.create("C:/foo/bar")));
+    assertTrue(PathFragment.create("C:/").endsWith(PathFragment.create("C:/")));
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testGetSafePathStringWindows() {
-    assertEquals("C:/", new PathFragment("C:/").getSafePathString());
-    assertEquals("C:/abc", new PathFragment("C:/abc").getSafePathString());
-    assertEquals("C:/abc/def", new PathFragment("C:/abc/def").getSafePathString());
+    assertEquals("C:/", PathFragment.create("C:/").getSafePathString());
+    assertEquals("C:/abc", PathFragment.create("C:/abc").getSafePathString());
+    assertEquals("C:/abc/def", PathFragment.create("C:/abc/def").getSafePathString());
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testNormalizeWindows() {
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment("C:/a/b"), new PathFragment("C:/a/b").normalize());
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment("C:/a/b"), new PathFragment("C:/a/./b").normalize());
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment("C:/b"), new PathFragment("C:/a/../b").normalize());
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment("C:/../b"), new PathFragment("C:/../b").normalize());
+    assertEquals(PathFragment.create("C:/a/b"), PathFragment.create("C:/a/b").normalize());
+    assertEquals(PathFragment.create("C:/a/b"), PathFragment.create("C:/a/./b").normalize());
+    assertEquals(PathFragment.create("C:/b"), PathFragment.create("C:/a/../b").normalize());
+    assertEquals(PathFragment.create("C:/../b"), PathFragment.create("C:/../b").normalize());
   }
 }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/PathGetParentTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/PathGetParentTest.java
index 5e6224c998..5681ba2ab1 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/PathGetParentTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/PathGetParentTest.java
@@ -81,6 +81,6 @@ public class PathGetParentTest {
 
     // Under UNIX, inode(/tmp/wiz/..) == inode(/).  However getPath() does not
     // perform I/O, only string operations, so it disagrees:
-    assertEquals(tmp, tmp.getRelative(new PathFragment("wiz/..")));
+    assertEquals(tmp, tmp.getRelative(PathFragment.create("wiz/..")));
   }
 }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/PathTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/PathTest.java
index 1976f05f8d..de1a47cb4c 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/PathTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/PathTest.java
@@ -179,11 +179,11 @@ public class PathTest {
   public void testGetRelativeWithFragmentWorks() {
     Path dir = filesystem.getPath("/first/x");
     assertEquals("/first/x/y",
-                 dir.getRelative(new PathFragment("y")).toString());
+                 dir.getRelative(PathFragment.create("y")).toString());
     assertEquals("/first/x/x",
-                 dir.getRelative(new PathFragment("./x")).toString());
+                 dir.getRelative(PathFragment.create("./x")).toString());
     assertEquals("/first/y",
-                 dir.getRelative(new PathFragment("../y")).toString());
+                 dir.getRelative(PathFragment.create("../y")).toString());
 
   }
 
@@ -191,7 +191,7 @@ public class PathTest {
   public void testGetRelativeWithAbsoluteFragmentWorks() {
     Path root = filesystem.getPath("/first/x");
     assertEquals("/x/y",
-                 root.getRelative(new PathFragment("/x/y")).toString());
+                 root.getRelative(PathFragment.create("/x/y")).toString());
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -238,14 +238,14 @@ public class PathTest {
   @Test
   public void testSiblingNonEquivalenceFragment() {
     assertNotSame(
-        root.getRelative(new PathFragment("aSingleSegment")),
-        root.getRelative(new PathFragment("aDifferentSegment")));
+        root.getRelative(PathFragment.create("aSingleSegment")),
+        root.getRelative(PathFragment.create("aDifferentSegment")));
   }
 
   @Test
   public void testHashCodeStableAcrossGarbageCollections() {
     Path parent = filesystem.getPath("/a");
-    PathFragment childFragment = new PathFragment("b");
+    PathFragment childFragment = PathFragment.create("b");
     Path child = parent.getRelative(childFragment);
     WeakReference<Path> childRef = new WeakReference<>(child);
     int childHashCode1 = childRef.get().hashCode();
@@ -315,7 +315,7 @@ public class PathTest {
   }
 
   private void assertAsFragmentWorks(String expected) {
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment(expected), filesystem.getPath(expected).asFragment());
+    assertEquals(PathFragment.create(expected), filesystem.getPath(expected).asFragment());
   }
 
   private void assertGetRelativeWorks(String expected, String relative) {
@@ -324,7 +324,7 @@ public class PathTest {
   }
 
   private void assertRelativeToWorks(String expected, String relative, String original) {
-    assertEquals(new PathFragment(expected),
+    assertEquals(PathFragment.create(expected),
                  filesystem.getPath(relative).relativeTo(filesystem.getPath(original)));
   }
 }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/RootedPathTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/RootedPathTest.java
index 83a72111b5..7ad65313c0 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/RootedPathTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/RootedPathTest.java
@@ -40,12 +40,14 @@ public class RootedPathTest {
   public void testEqualsAndHashCodeContract() throws Exception {
     Path pkgRoot1 = root.getRelative("pkgroot1");
     Path pkgRoot2 = root.getRelative("pkgroot2");
-    RootedPath rootedPathA1 = RootedPath.toRootedPath(pkgRoot1, new PathFragment("foo/bar"));
-    RootedPath rootedPathA2 = RootedPath.toRootedPath(pkgRoot1, new PathFragment("foo/bar"));
-    RootedPath absolutePath1 = RootedPath.toRootedPath(root, new PathFragment("pkgroot1/foo/bar"));
-    RootedPath rootedPathB1 = RootedPath.toRootedPath(pkgRoot2, new PathFragment("foo/bar"));
-    RootedPath rootedPathB2 = RootedPath.toRootedPath(pkgRoot2, new PathFragment("foo/bar"));
-    RootedPath absolutePath2 = RootedPath.toRootedPath(root, new PathFragment("pkgroot2/foo/bar"));
+    RootedPath rootedPathA1 = RootedPath.toRootedPath(pkgRoot1, PathFragment.create("foo/bar"));
+    RootedPath rootedPathA2 = RootedPath.toRootedPath(pkgRoot1, PathFragment.create("foo/bar"));
+    RootedPath absolutePath1 =
+        RootedPath.toRootedPath(root, PathFragment.create("pkgroot1/foo/bar"));
+    RootedPath rootedPathB1 = RootedPath.toRootedPath(pkgRoot2, PathFragment.create("foo/bar"));
+    RootedPath rootedPathB2 = RootedPath.toRootedPath(pkgRoot2, PathFragment.create("foo/bar"));
+    RootedPath absolutePath2 =
+        RootedPath.toRootedPath(root, PathFragment.create("pkgroot2/foo/bar"));
     new EqualsTester()
       .addEqualityGroup(rootedPathA1, rootedPathA2)
       .addEqualityGroup(rootedPathB1, rootedPathB2)
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/ScopeEscapableFileSystemTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/ScopeEscapableFileSystemTest.java
index f321ab93e3..cec1523a0e 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/ScopeEscapableFileSystemTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/ScopeEscapableFileSystemTest.java
@@ -129,7 +129,7 @@ public abstract class ScopeEscapableFileSystemTest extends SymlinkAwareFileSyste
     }
   }
 
-  protected static final PathFragment SCOPE_ROOT = new PathFragment("/fs/root");
+  protected static final PathFragment SCOPE_ROOT = PathFragment.create("/fs/root");
 
   private Path fileLink;
   private PathFragment fileLinkTarget;
@@ -146,11 +146,11 @@ public abstract class ScopeEscapableFileSystemTest extends SymlinkAwareFileSyste
     }
 
     fileLink = testFS.getPath(SCOPE_ROOT.getRelative("link"));
-    fileLinkTarget = new PathFragment("/should/be/delegated/fileLinkTarget");
+    fileLinkTarget = PathFragment.create("/should/be/delegated/fileLinkTarget");
     testFS.createSymbolicLink(fileLink, fileLinkTarget);
 
     dirLink = testFS.getPath(SCOPE_ROOT.getRelative("dirlink"));
-    dirLinkTarget = new PathFragment("/should/be/delegated/dirLinkTarget");
+    dirLinkTarget = PathFragment.create("/should/be/delegated/dirLinkTarget");
     testFS.createSymbolicLink(dirLink, dirLinkTarget);
   }
 
@@ -605,7 +605,7 @@ public abstract class ScopeEscapableFileSystemTest extends SymlinkAwareFileSyste
     };
     scopedFS().setDelegator(delegator);
 
-    PathFragment newLinkTarget = new PathFragment("/something/else");
+    PathFragment newLinkTarget = PathFragment.create("/something/else");
     dirLink.getRelative("a").createSymbolicLink(newLinkTarget);
     assertEquals(dirLinkTarget.getRelative("a"), delegator.lastPath());
     assertSame(newLinkTarget, delegator.objectState());
@@ -623,7 +623,7 @@ public abstract class ScopeEscapableFileSystemTest extends SymlinkAwareFileSyste
     scopedFS().setDelegator(delegator);
 
     // Since we're not following the link, this shouldn't invoke delegation.
-    delegator.setState(new PathFragment("whatever"));
+    delegator.setState(PathFragment.create("whatever"));
     PathFragment p = fileLink.readSymbolicLink();
     assertNull(delegator.lastPath());
     assertNotSame(delegator.objectState(), p);
@@ -705,7 +705,7 @@ public abstract class ScopeEscapableFileSystemTest extends SymlinkAwareFileSyste
    */
   private void assertInScopeLink(String link, String target, TestDelegator d) throws IOException {
     Path l = testFS.getPath(SCOPE_ROOT.getRelative(link));
-    testFS.createSymbolicLink(l, new PathFragment(target));
+    testFS.createSymbolicLink(l, PathFragment.create(target));
     l.exists();
     assertNull(d.lastPath());
   }
@@ -717,7 +717,7 @@ public abstract class ScopeEscapableFileSystemTest extends SymlinkAwareFileSyste
   private void assertOutOfScopeLink(String link, String target, String expectedPath,
       TestDelegator d) throws IOException {
     Path l = testFS.getPath(SCOPE_ROOT.getRelative(link));
-    testFS.createSymbolicLink(l, new PathFragment(target));
+    testFS.createSymbolicLink(l, PathFragment.create(target));
     l.exists();
     assertEquals(expectedPath, d.lastPath().getPathString());
   }
@@ -768,7 +768,7 @@ public abstract class ScopeEscapableFileSystemTest extends SymlinkAwareFileSyste
 
     // Out-of-scope symlink that's not the final segment in a query.
     Path oDirLink = testFS.getPath(SCOPE_ROOT.getRelative("olinkdir"));
-    testFS.createSymbolicLink(oDirLink, new PathFragment("/some/other/dir"));
+    testFS.createSymbolicLink(oDirLink, PathFragment.create("/some/other/dir"));
     oDirLink.getRelative("file").exists();
     assertEquals("/some/other/dir/file", d.lastPath().getPathString());
   }
@@ -807,13 +807,13 @@ public abstract class ScopeEscapableFileSystemTest extends SymlinkAwareFileSyste
 
     // In-scope symlink that's not the final segment in a query.
     Path iDirLink = testFS.getPath(SCOPE_ROOT.getRelative("dir/dir2/ilinkdir"));
-    testFS.createSymbolicLink(iDirLink, new PathFragment("../../dir"));
+    testFS.createSymbolicLink(iDirLink, PathFragment.create("../../dir"));
     iDirLink.getRelative("file").exists();
     assertNull(d.lastPath());
 
     // Out-of-scope symlink that's not the final segment in a query.
     Path oDirLink = testFS.getPath(SCOPE_ROOT.getRelative("dir/dir2/olinkdir"));
-    testFS.createSymbolicLink(oDirLink, new PathFragment("../../../other/dir"));
+    testFS.createSymbolicLink(oDirLink, PathFragment.create("../../../other/dir"));
     oDirLink.getRelative("file").exists();
     assertEquals(chopScopeRoot(1) + "/other/dir/file", d.lastPath().getPathString());
   }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/SymlinkAwareFileSystemTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/SymlinkAwareFileSystemTest.java
index 9f9480c19b..b048748861 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/SymlinkAwareFileSystemTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/SymlinkAwareFileSystemTest.java
@@ -200,7 +200,7 @@ public abstract class SymlinkAwareFileSystemTest extends FileSystemTest {
     };
     Path linkPath = absolutize("link");
     for (String linkTarget : linkTargets) {
-      PathFragment relative = new PathFragment(linkTarget);
+      PathFragment relative = PathFragment.create(linkTarget);
       linkPath.delete();
       createSymbolicLink(linkPath, relative);
       if (supportsSymlinks) {
@@ -246,7 +246,7 @@ public abstract class SymlinkAwareFileSystemTest extends FileSystemTest {
   @Test
   public void testLinkToFragmentContainingLinkResolvesCorrectly() throws IOException {
     Path link1 = absolutize("link1");
-    PathFragment link1target = new PathFragment("link2/foo");
+    PathFragment link1target = PathFragment.create("link2/foo");
     Path link2 = absolutize("link2");
     Path link2target = xNonEmptyDirectory;
 
@@ -331,7 +331,7 @@ public abstract class SymlinkAwareFileSystemTest extends FileSystemTest {
       String prefix = "./";
       while ((ancestor = ancestor.getParentDirectory()) != null) {
         xLinkToFile.delete();
-        createSymbolicLink(xLinkToFile, new PathFragment(prefix + xFile.relativeTo(ancestor)));
+        createSymbolicLink(xLinkToFile, PathFragment.create(prefix + xFile.relativeTo(ancestor)));
         assertEquals(xFile, xLinkToFile.resolveSymbolicLinks());
 
         prefix += "../";
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/UnionFileSystemTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/UnionFileSystemTest.java
index 50329d6ed0..c1e793562a 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/UnionFileSystemTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/UnionFileSystemTest.java
@@ -64,8 +64,8 @@ public class UnionFileSystemTest extends SymlinkAwareFileSystemTest {
 
   private UnionFileSystem createDefaultUnionFileSystem(boolean readOnly) {
     return new UnionFileSystem(ImmutableMap.<PathFragment, FileSystem>of(
-        new PathFragment("/in"), inDelegate,
-        new PathFragment("/out"), outDelegate),
+        PathFragment.create("/in"), inDelegate,
+        PathFragment.create("/out"), outDelegate),
         defaultDelegate, readOnly);
   }
 
@@ -123,8 +123,8 @@ public class UnionFileSystemTest extends SymlinkAwareFileSystemTest {
   @Test
   public void testPrefixDelegation() throws Exception {
     unionfs = new UnionFileSystem(ImmutableMap.<PathFragment, FileSystem>of(
-              new PathFragment("/foo"), inDelegate,
-              new PathFragment("/foo/bar"), outDelegate), defaultDelegate);
+              PathFragment.create("/foo"), inDelegate,
+              PathFragment.create("/foo/bar"), outDelegate), defaultDelegate);
 
     assertSame(inDelegate, unionfs.getDelegate(unionfs.getPath("/foo/foo.txt")));
     assertSame(outDelegate, unionfs.getDelegate(unionfs.getPath("/foo/bar/foo.txt")));
@@ -220,7 +220,7 @@ public class UnionFileSystemTest extends SymlinkAwareFileSystemTest {
     outStream.close();
 
     Path outFoo = unionfs.getPath("/out/foo");
-    unionfs.createSymbolicLink(outFoo, new PathFragment("../in/bar.txt"));
+    unionfs.createSymbolicLink(outFoo, PathFragment.create("../in/bar.txt"));
     assertTrue(unionfs.stat(outFoo, false).isSymbolicLink());
 
     try {
@@ -253,8 +253,8 @@ public class UnionFileSystemTest extends SymlinkAwareFileSystemTest {
   @Test
   public void testWithinDirectoryMapping() throws Exception {
     unionfs = new UnionFileSystem(ImmutableMap.<PathFragment, FileSystem>of(
-        new PathFragment("/fruit/a"), inDelegate,
-        new PathFragment("/fruit/b"), outDelegate), defaultDelegate);
+        PathFragment.create("/fruit/a"), inDelegate,
+        PathFragment.create("/fruit/b"), outDelegate), defaultDelegate);
     assertTrue(unionfs.createDirectory(unionfs.getPath("/fruit")));
     assertTrue(defaultDelegate.getPath("/fruit").isDirectory());
     assertTrue(inDelegate.getPath("/fruit").createDirectory());
@@ -309,7 +309,7 @@ public class UnionFileSystemTest extends SymlinkAwareFileSystemTest {
   @Test
   public void testCreateParentsAcrossMapping() throws Exception {
     unionfs = new UnionFileSystem(ImmutableMap.<PathFragment, FileSystem>of(
-        new PathFragment("/out/dir"), outDelegate), defaultDelegate, false);
+        PathFragment.create("/out/dir"), outDelegate), defaultDelegate, false);
     Path outDir = unionfs.getPath("/out/dir/biz/bang");
     FileSystemUtils.createDirectoryAndParents(outDir);
     assertTrue(outDir.isDirectory());
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/inmemoryfs/InMemoryFileSystemTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/inmemoryfs/InMemoryFileSystemTest.java
index 65446664d3..ee4dfe937a 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/inmemoryfs/InMemoryFileSystemTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/inmemoryfs/InMemoryFileSystemTest.java
@@ -394,8 +394,8 @@ public class InMemoryFileSystemTest extends ScopeEscapableFileSystemTest {
   public void testEloop() throws Exception {
     Path a = testFS.getPath("/a");
     Path b = testFS.getPath("/b");
-    a.createSymbolicLink(new PathFragment("b"));
-    b.createSymbolicLink(new PathFragment("a"));
+    a.createSymbolicLink(PathFragment.create("b"));
+    b.createSymbolicLink(PathFragment.create("a"));
     try {
       a.stat();
     } catch (IOException e) {
@@ -406,7 +406,7 @@ public class InMemoryFileSystemTest extends ScopeEscapableFileSystemTest {
   @Test
   public void testEloopSelf() throws Exception {
     Path a = testFS.getPath("/a");
-    a.createSymbolicLink(new PathFragment("a"));
+    a.createSymbolicLink(PathFragment.create("a"));
     try {
       a.stat();
     } catch (IOException e) {