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Diffstat (limited to 'guidelines/wikipedia/testPages/Évariste Galois - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.html')
| -rw-r--r-- | guidelines/wikipedia/testPages/Évariste Galois - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.html | 578 |
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class="dablink">"Galois" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallois_(disambiguation)" title="Gallois (disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect">Gallois (disambiguation)</a>.</div> +<table class="infobox vcard" cellspacing="3" style="border-spacing:3px;width:22em;"> +<tbody><tr> +<th colspan="2" class="fn" style="text-align:center;font-size:125%;font-weight:bold;background:transparent; text-align:center;;">Évariste Galois</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0.5em;;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Evariste_galois.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Evariste galois.jpg" src="./Évariste Galois - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia_files/330px-Evariste_galois.jpg" width="220" height="284" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Evariste_galois.jpg/330px-Evariste_galois.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Evariste_galois.jpg/440px-Evariste_galois.jpg 2x"></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th scope="row" style="text-align:left;background:transparent; line-height:1.1em;;">Born</th> +<td style="line-height:1.3em; vertical-align:middle;;"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1811-10-25</span>)</span>25 October 1811<br> +<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourg-la-Reine" title="Bourg-la-Reine">Bourg-la-Reine</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">French Empire</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th scope="row" style="text-align:left;background:transparent; line-height:1.1em;;">Died</th> +<td style="line-height:1.3em; vertical-align:middle;;">31 May 1832<span style="display:none">(<span class="dday deathdate">1832-05-31</span>)</span> (aged 20)<br> +<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_Monarchy" title="July Monarchy">Kingdom of France</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th scope="row" style="text-align:left;background:transparent; line-height:1.1em;;">Nationality</th> +<td style="line-height:1.3em; vertical-align:middle;;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_people" title="French people">French</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th scope="row" style="text-align:left;background:transparent; line-height:1.1em;;">Fields</th> +<td class="category" style="line-height:1.3em; vertical-align:middle;;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">Mathematics</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th scope="row" style="text-align:left;background:transparent; line-height:1.1em;;">Known for</th> +<td style="line-height:1.3em; vertical-align:middle;;">Work on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_equations" title="Theory of equations">theory of equations</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abelian_integral" title="Abelian integral">Abelian integrals</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;line-height:1.3em; vertical-align:middle;;"><b>Signature</b><br> +<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Galois-Signature.svg" class="image" title="Évariste Galois's signature"><img alt="" src="./Évariste Galois - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia_files/192px-Galois-Signature.svg.png" width="128" height="42" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Galois-Signature.svg/192px-Galois-Signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Galois-Signature.svg/256px-Galois-Signature.svg.png 2x"></a></td> +</tr> +</tbody></table> +<p><b>Évariste Galois</b> (<small>French: </small><span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_French" title="Help:IPA for French">[evaʁist ɡaˈlwa]</a></span>) (25 October 1811 – 31 May 1832) was a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" title="France">French</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematician" title="Mathematician">mathematician</a> born in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourg-la-Reine" title="Bourg-la-Reine">Bourg-la-Reine</a>. While still in his teens, he was able to determine a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necessary_and_sufficient_conditions" title="Necessary and sufficient conditions" class="mw-redirect">necessary and sufficient condition</a> for a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial" title="Polynomial">polynomial</a> to be solvable by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nth_root" title="Nth root">radicals</a>, thereby solving a long-standing problem. His work laid the foundations for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois_theory" title="Galois theory">Galois theory</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_theory" title="Group theory">group theory</a>, two major branches of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_algebra" title="Abstract algebra">abstract algebra</a>, and the subfield of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois_connection" title="Galois connection">Galois connections</a>. He was the first to use the word "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_(mathematics)" title="Group (mathematics)">group</a>" (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>groupe</i></span>) as a technical term in mathematics to represent a <i>group of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permutation" title="Permutation">permutations</a></i>. A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radicalism_(historical)" title="Radicalism (historical)">radical Republican</a> during the monarchy of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis-Philippe_of_France" title="Louis-Philippe of France" class="mw-redirect">Louis Philippe</a> in France, he died from wounds suffered in a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duel" title="Duel">duel</a> under questionable circumstances<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-1"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup> at the age of twenty.</p> +<p></p> +<div id="toc" class="toc"> +<div id="toctitle"> +<h2>Contents</h2> +<span class="toctoggle"> [<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#" class="internal" id="togglelink">hide</a>] </span></div> +<ul> +<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#Life"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Life</span></a> +<ul> +<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#Early_life"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Early life</span></a></li> +<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#Budding_mathematician"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Budding mathematician</span></a></li> +<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#Political_firebrand"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Political firebrand</span></a></li> +<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#Final_days"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Final days</span></a></li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#Contributions_to_mathematics"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Contributions to mathematics</span></a> +<ul> +<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#Algebra"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Algebra</span></a></li> +<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#Galois_theory"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Galois theory</span></a></li> +<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#Analysis"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Analysis</span></a></li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> +<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li> +<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#References"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> +<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li> +</ul> +</div> +<p></p> +<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Life">Life</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C3%89variste_Galois&action=edit§ion=1" title="Edit section: Life">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> +<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_life">Early life</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C3%89variste_Galois&action=edit§ion=2" title="Edit section: Early life">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> +<p>Galois was born on 25 October 1811 to Nicolas-Gabriel Galois and Adélaïde-Marie (born Demante). His father was a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_French_Republic" title="First French Republic" class="mw-redirect">Republican</a> and was head of Bourg-la-Reine's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_party" title="Liberal party" class="mw-redirect">liberal party</a>. He became mayor of the village after <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XVIII_of_France" title="Louis XVIII of France">Louis XVIII</a> returned to the throne in 1814. His mother, the daughter of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurist" title="Jurist">jurist</a>, was a fluent reader of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_literature" title="Classical literature" class="mw-redirect">classical literature</a> and was responsible for her son's education for his first twelve years. At the age of 10, Galois was offered a place at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=College_of_Reims&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="College of Reims (page does not exist)">college of Reims</a>, but his mother preferred to keep him at home.</p> +<p>In October <strike>1492</strike> 1823, he entered the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyc%C3%A9e_Louis-le-Grand" title="Lycée Louis-le-Grand">Lycée Louis-le-Grand</a>, and despite some <del>chaos</del> turmoil in the school at the beginning of the term (when about a hundred students were expelled), Galois managed to perform well for the first two years, obtaining the first prize in Latin. He soon became bored with his studies and, at the age of 14, he began to take a serious interest in mathematics.</p> +<p>He found a copy of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrien_Marie_Legendre" title="Adrien Marie Legendre" class="mw-redirect">Adrien Marie Legendre</a>'s <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C3%89l%C3%A9ments_de_G%C3%A9om%C3%A9trie&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Éléments de Géométrie (page does not exist)">Éléments de Géométrie</a></i>, which it is said that he read "like a novel" and mastered at the first reading. At 15, he was reading the original papers of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Louis_Lagrange" title="Joseph Louis Lagrange" class="mw-redirect">Joseph Louis Lagrange</a>, such as the landmark <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9flexions_sur_la_r%C3%A9solution_alg%C3%A9brique_des_%C3%A9quations" title="Réflexions sur la résolution algébrique des équations" class="mw-redirect">Réflexions sur la résolution algébrique des équations</a></i> which likely motivated his later work on equation theory, and <i>Leçons sur le calcul des fonctions</i>, work intended for professional mathematicians, yet his classwork remained uninspired, and his teachers accused him of <i>affecting</i> ambition and originality in a negative way.<sup id="cite_ref-stewart-gt_2-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-stewart-gt-2"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></p> +<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Budding_mathematician">Budding mathematician</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C3%89variste_Galois&action=edit§ion=3" title="Edit section: Budding mathematician">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> +<p>In 1828, he attempted the entrance examination for the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_Polytechnique" title="École Polytechnique">École Polytechnique</a>, the most prestigious institution for mathematics in France at the time, without the usual preparation in mathematics, and failed for lack of explanations on the oral examination. In that same year, he entered the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_Normale" title="École Normale" class="mw-redirect">École Normale</a> (then known as l'École préparatoire), a far inferior institution for mathematical studies at that time, where he found some professors sympathetic to him.</p> +<p>In the following year Galois's first paper, on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continued_fractions" title="Continued fractions" class="mw-redirect">continued fractions</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-3"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup> was published. It was at around the same time that he began making fundamental discoveries in the theory of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial_equation" title="Polynomial equation" class="mw-redirect">polynomial equations</a>. He submitted two papers on this topic to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Sciences" title="Academy of Sciences">Academy of Sciences</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin_Louis_Cauchy" title="Augustin Louis Cauchy" class="mw-redirect">Augustin Louis Cauchy</a> refereed these papers, but refused to accept them for publication for reasons that still remain unclear. However, in spite of many claims to the contrary, it is widely held that Cauchy recognized the importance of Galois's work, and that he merely suggested combining the two papers into one in order to enter it in the competition for the Academy's Grand Prize in Mathematics. Cauchy, an eminent mathematician of the time, considered Galois's work to be a likely winner.<sup id="cite_ref-rothman_4-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-rothman-4"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup></p> +<p>On 28 July 1829 Galois's father <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicide" title="Suicide">committed suicide</a> after a bitter political dispute with the village priest. A couple of days later, Galois made his second and last attempt to enter the Polytechnique, and failed yet again. It is undisputed that Galois was more than qualified; however, accounts differ on why he failed. More plausible accounts state that Galois made too many logical leaps and baffled the incompetent examiner, which enraged Galois. The recent death of his father may have also influenced his behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-stewart-gt_2-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-stewart-gt-2"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></p> +<p>Having been denied admission to the Polytechnique, Galois took the Baccalaureate examinations in order to enter the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_Normale" title="École Normale" class="mw-redirect">École Normale</a>. He passed, receiving his degree on 29 December 1829. His examiner in mathematics reported, "This pupil is sometimes obscure in expressing his ideas, but he is intelligent and shows a remarkable spirit of research."</p> +<p>He submitted his memoir on equation theory several times, but it was never published in his lifetime due to various events. As noted before, his first attempt was refused by Cauchy, but in February 1830 following Cauchy's suggestion he submitted it to the Academy's secretary <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Fourier" title="Joseph Fourier">Fourier</a>, to be considered for the Grand Prix of the Academy. Unfortunately, Fourier died soon after, and the memoir was lost. The prize would be awarded that year to Abel posthumously and also to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Jakob_Jacobi" title="Carl Gustav Jakob Jacobi" class="mw-redirect">Jacobi</a>. Despite the lost memoir, Galois published three papers that year, one of which laid the foundations for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois_theory" title="Galois theory">Galois theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-5"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup> The second one was about the numerical resolution of equations (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_finding" title="Root finding" class="mw-redirect">root finding</a> in modern terminology).<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-6"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup> The third was an important one in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_theory" title="Number theory">number theory</a>, in which the concept of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_field" title="Finite field">finite field</a> was first articulated.<sup id="cite_ref-numtheory_7-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-numtheory-7"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></p> +<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Political_firebrand">Political firebrand</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C3%89variste_Galois&action=edit§ion=4" title="Edit section: Political firebrand">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> +<p>Galois lived during a time of political turmoil in France. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_X_of_France" title="Charles X of France">Charles X</a> had succeeded Louis XVIII in 1824, but in 1827 his party suffered a major electoral setback and by 1830 the opposition liberal party became the majority. Charles, faced with abdication, staged a coup d'état, and issued his notorious <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_Ordinances" title="July Ordinances">July Ordinances</a>, touching off the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_Revolution" title="July Revolution">July Revolution</a> which ended with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis-Philippe_of_France" title="Louis-Philippe of France" class="mw-redirect">Louis-Philippe</a> becoming king. While their counterparts at Polytechnique were making history in the streets during <i>les Trois Glorieuses</i>, Galois and all the other students at the École Normale were locked in by the school's director. Galois was incensed and wrote a blistering letter criticizing the director, which he submitted to the <i>Gazette des Écoles</i>, signing the letter with his full name. Although the <i>Gazette'</i>s editor omitted the signature for publication, Galois was expelled.<sup id="cite_ref-dupuy_8-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-dupuy-8"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup></p> +<p>Although his expulsion would have formally taken effect on 4 January 1831, Galois quit school immediately and joined the staunchly Republican artillery unit of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Guard_(France)" title="National Guard (France)">National Guard</a>. He divided his time between his mathematical work and his political affiliations. Due to controversy surrounding the unit, soon after Galois became a member, on 31 December 1830, the artillery of the National Guard was disbanded out of fear that they might destabilize the government. At around the same time, nineteen officers of Galois's former unit were arrested and charged with conspiracy to overthrow the government.</p> +<p>In April, the officers were acquitted of all charges, and on 9 May 1831, a banquet was held in their honor, with many illustrious people present, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre_Dumas,_p%C3%A8re" title="Alexandre Dumas, père" class="mw-redirect">Alexandre Dumas</a>. The proceedings grew riotous, and Galois proposed a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toast_(honor)" title="Toast (honor)">toast</a> to King Louis-Philippe with a dagger above his cup, which was interpreted as a threat against the king's life. He was arrested the following day, but was acquitted on 15 June.<sup id="cite_ref-dupuy_8-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-dupuy-8"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dumas_9-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-dumas-9"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup></p> +<p>On the following <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bastille_Day" title="Bastille Day">Bastille Day</a> (July 14), Galois was at the head of a protest, wearing the uniform of the disbanded artillery, and came heavily armed with several pistols, a rifle, and a dagger. He was again arrested. This time he was sentenced to <b>six months</b> in prison for illegally wearing a uniform.<sup id="cite_ref-bell_10-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-bell-10"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup> <b>Nine and a half months</b> later, he was released, on 29 April 1832. During his imprisonment, he continued developing his mathematical ideas.</p> +<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Final_days">Final days</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C3%89variste_Galois&action=edit§ion=5" title="Edit section: Final days">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> +<div class="thumb tleft"> +<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tombe_galois.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="./Évariste Galois - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia_files/330px-Tombe_galois.JPG" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Tombe_galois.JPG/330px-Tombe_galois.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Tombe_galois.JPG/440px-Tombe_galois.JPG 2x"></a> +<div class="thumbcaption"> +<div class="magnify"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tombe_galois.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="./Évariste Galois - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia_files/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" alt=""></a></div> +The Galois memorial in the cemetery of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourg-la-Reine" title="Bourg-la-Reine">Bourg-la-Reine</a>. Évariste Galois was buried in a common grave and the exact location is still unknown.</div> +</div> +</div> +<p>Galois returned to mathematics after his expulsion from the École Normale, although he continued to spend time in political activities. After his expulsion became official in January 1831, he attempted to start a private class in advanced algebra which attracted some interest, but this waned, as it seemed that his <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activism" title="Activism">political activism</a> had priority.<sup id="cite_ref-stewart-gt_2-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-stewart-gt-2"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-rothman_4-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-rothman-4"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sim%C3%A9on_Poisson" title="Siméon Poisson" class="mw-redirect">Siméon Poisson</a> asked him to submit his work on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_equations" title="Theory of equations">theory of equations</a>, which he did on 17 January. Around 4 July, Poisson declared Galois's work "incomprehensible", declaring that "[Galois's] argument is neither sufficiently clear nor sufficiently developed to allow us to judge its rigor"; however, the rejection report ends on an encouraging note: "We would then suggest that the author should publish the whole of his work in order to form a definitive opinion."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-11"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup> While Poisson's report was made before Galois's Bastille Day arrest, it took until October to reach Galois in prison. It is unsurprising, in the light of his character and situation at the time, that Galois reacted violently to the rejection letter, and decided to abandon publishing his papers through the Academy and instead publish them privately through his friend Auguste Chevalier. Apparently, however, Galois did not ignore Poisson's advice, as he began collecting all his mathematical manuscripts while still in prison, and continued polishing his ideas until his release on 29 April 1832.<sup id="cite_ref-dupuy_8-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-dupuy-8"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup></p> +<p>Galois's fatal duel took place on 30 May. The true motives behind the duel will most likely remain forever obscure. There has been much speculation, much of it spurious, as to the reasons behind it. What is known is that five days before his death, he wrote a letter to Chevalier which clearly alludes to a broken love affair.<sup id="cite_ref-rothman_4-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-rothman-4"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup></p> +<p>Some archival investigation on the original letters suggests that the woman of romantic interest was a Mademoiselle <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=St%C3%A9phanie-F%C3%A9licie_Poterin_du_Motel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Stéphanie-Félicie Poterin du Motel (page does not exist)">Stéphanie-Félicie Poterin du Motel</a>, the daughter of the physician at the hostel where Galois stayed during the last months of his life. Fragments of letters from her copied by Galois himself (with many portions either obliterated, such as her name, or deliberately omitted) are available.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-12"><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></a></sup> The letters hint that Mlle. du Motel had confided some of her troubles to Galois, and this might have prompted him to provoke the duel himself on her behalf. This conjecture is also supported by other letters Galois later wrote to his friends the night before he died. Much more detailed speculation based on these scant historical details has been interpolated by many of Galois's biographers (most notably by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Temple_Bell" title="Eric Temple Bell">Eric Temple Bell</a> in <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Men_of_Mathematics" title="Men of Mathematics">Men of Mathematics</a></i>), such as the frequently repeated speculation that the entire incident was stage-managed by the police and royalist factions to eliminate a political enemy.<sup id="cite_ref-bell_10-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-bell-10"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup></p> +<p>As to his opponent in the duel, Alexandre Dumas names Pescheux d'Herbinville, one of the nineteen artillery officers whose acquittal was celebrated at the banquet that occasioned Galois's first arrest<sup id="cite_ref-dumas_9-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-dumas-9"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup> and du Motel's fiancé.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> However, Dumas is alone in this assertion, and extant newspaper clippings from only a few days after the duel give a description of his opponent that more accurately applies to one of Galois's Republican friends, most probably Ernest Duchatelet, who was imprisoned with Galois on the same charges. Given the conflicting information available, the true identity of his killer may well be lost to history.</p> +<p>Whatever the reasons behind the duel, Galois was so convinced of his impending death that he stayed up all night writing letters to his Republican friends and composing what would become his mathematical testament, the famous letter to Auguste Chevalier outlining his ideas, and three attached manuscripts.<sup id="cite_ref-chevalier-letter_13-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-chevalier-letter-13"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Weyl" title="Hermann Weyl">Hermann Weyl</a>, a mathematician, said of this testament, "This letter, if judged by the novelty and profundity of ideas it contains, is perhaps the most substantial piece of writing in the whole literature of mankind." However, the legend of Galois pouring his mathematical thoughts onto paper the night before he died seems to have been exaggerated.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In these final papers, he outlined the rough edges of some work he had been doing in analysis and annotated a copy of the manuscript submitted to the Academy and other papers.</p> +<p>Early in the morning of 30 May 1832 he was shot in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_abdomen" title="Human abdomen" class="mw-redirect">abdomen</a> and died the following morning at ten o'clock in the Cochin hospital (probably of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peritonitis" title="Peritonitis">peritonitis</a>) after refusing the offices of a priest. There were plans to initiate an uprising during his funeral, but during the same time frame the leaders heard of General <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Maximilien_Lamarque" title="Jean Maximilien Lamarque">Jean Maximilien Lamarque</a>'s death, and the funeral was postponed without any uprising occurring. Only Galois's younger brother was notified of the events prior to Galois's death.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-14"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup> He was 20 years old. His <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_words" title="Last words">last words</a> to his younger brother Alfred were:</p> +<blockquote> +<p><i>Ne pleure pas, Alfred ! J'ai besoin de tout mon courage pour mourir à vingt ans !</i> (Don't cry, Alfred! I need all my courage to die at twenty.)</p> +</blockquote> +<p>On 2 June, Évariste Galois was buried in a common grave of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montparnasse_cemetery" title="Montparnasse cemetery" class="mw-redirect">Montparnasse cemetery</a> whose exact location is unknown.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-15"><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup> In the cemetery of his native town – <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourg-la-Reine" title="Bourg-la-Reine">Bourg-la-Reine</a> – a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cenotaph" title="Cenotaph">cenotaph</a> in his honour was erected beside the graves of his relatives.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-16"><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup></p> +<p>Galois's mathematical contributions were published in full in 1843 when <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Liouville" title="Joseph Liouville">Liouville</a> reviewed his manuscript and declared it sound. It was finally published in the October–November 1846 issue of the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_de_Math%C3%A9matiques_Pures_et_Appliqu%C3%A9es" title="Journal de Mathématiques Pures et Appliquées">Journal de Mathématiques Pures et Appliquées</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-17"><span>[</span>17<span>]</span></a></sup> The most famous contribution of this manuscript was a novel proof that there is no <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintic_equation" title="Quintic equation" class="mw-redirect">quintic formula</a> – that is, that fifth and higher degree equations are not generally solvable by radicals. Although <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niels_Henrik_Abel" title="Niels Henrik Abel">Abel</a> had already <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abel-Ruffini_theorem" title="Abel-Ruffini theorem" class="mw-redirect">proved the impossibility of a "quintic formula" by radicals</a> in 1824 and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paolo_Ruffini" title="Paolo Ruffini">Ruffini</a> had published a solution in 1799 that turned out to be flawed, Galois's methods led to deeper research in what is now called Galois theory. For example, one can use it to determine, for <i>any</i> polynomial equation, whether it has a solution by radicals.</p> +<h1><span class="mw-headline" id="Contributions_to_mathematics">Contributions to mathematics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C3%89variste_Galois&action=edit§ion=6" title="Edit section: Contributions to mathematics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h1> +<p>From the closing lines of a letter from Galois to his friend Auguste Chevalier, dated May 29, 1832, two days before Galois's death:<sup id="cite_ref-chevalier-letter_13-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-chevalier-letter-13"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup></p> +<blockquote class="templatequote"> +<p><i>Tu prieras publiquement Jacobi ou Gauss de donner leur avis, non sur la vérité, mais sur l'importance des théorèmes.</i></p> +<p><i>Après cela, il y aura, j'espère, des gens qui trouveront leur profit à déchiffrer tout ce gâchis.</i></p> +<p>(Ask Jacobi or Gauss publicly to give their opinion, not as to the truth, but as to the importance of these theorems. Later there will be, I hope, some people who will find it to their advantage to decipher all this mess.)</p> +</blockquote> +<p>Unsurprisingly, Galois's collected works amount to only some 60 pages, but within them are many important ideas that have had far-reaching consequences for nearly all branches of mathematics.<sup id="cite_ref-lie_18-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-lie-18"><span>[</span>18<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-19"><span>[</span>19<span>]</span></a></sup> His work has been compared to that of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niels_Henrik_Abel" title="Niels Henrik Abel">Niels Henrik Abel</a>, another mathematician who died at a very young age, and much of their work had significant overlap.</p> +<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Algebra">Algebra</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C3%89variste_Galois&action=edit§ion=7" title="Edit section: Algebra">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> +<p>While many mathematicians before Galois gave consideration to what are now known as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_(algebra)" title="Group (algebra)" class="mw-redirect">groups</a>, it was Galois who was the first to use the word <i>group</i> (in French <i>groupe</i>) in a sense close to the technical sense that is understood today, making him among the founders of the branch of algebra known as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_theory" title="Group theory">group theory</a>. He developed the concept that is today known as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_subgroup" title="Normal subgroup">normal subgroup</a>. He called the decomposition of a group into its left and right <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coset" title="Coset">cosets</a> a <i>proper decomposition</i> if the left and right cosets coincide, which is what today is known as a normal subgroup.<sup id="cite_ref-chevalier-letter_13-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-chevalier-letter-13"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup> He also introduced the concept of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_field" title="Finite field">finite field</a> (also known as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois_field" title="Galois field" class="mw-redirect">Galois field</a> in his honor), in essentially the same form as it is understood today.<sup id="cite_ref-numtheory_7-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-numtheory-7"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></p> +<p>In his last letter to Chevalier<sup id="cite_ref-chevalier-letter_13-3" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-chevalier-letter-13"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup> and attached manuscripts, the second of three, he made basic studies of linear groups over finite fields:</p> +<ul> +<li>He constructed the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_linear_group#Over_finite_fields" title="General linear group">general linear group over a prime field</a>, GL(<i>ν</i>, <i>p</i>) and computed its order, in studying the Galois group of the general equation of degree <i>p<sup>ν</sup></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-20"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup></li> +<li>He constructed the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projective_special_linear_group" title="Projective special linear group" class="mw-redirect">projective special linear group</a> PSL(2,<i>p</i>). Galois constructed them as fractional linear transforms, and observed that they were simple except if <i>p</i> was 2 or 3.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-21"><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup> These were the second family of finite <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_group" title="Simple group">simple groups</a>, after the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_group" title="Alternating group">alternating groups</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-raw_22-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-raw-22"><span>[</span>22<span>]</span></a></sup></li> +<li>He noted the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exceptional_object" title="Exceptional object">exceptional fact</a> that PSL(2,<i>p</i>) is simple and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projective_linear_group#Action_on_p_points" title="Projective linear group">acts on <i>p</i> points</a> if and only if <i>p</i> is 5, 7, or 11.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-23"><span>[</span>23<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-24"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup></li> +</ul> +<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Galois_theory">Galois theory</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C3%89variste_Galois&action=edit§ion=8" title="Edit section: Galois theory">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> +<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois_theory" title="Galois theory">Galois theory</a></div> +<p>Galois's most significant contribution to mathematics by far is his development of Galois theory. He realized that the algebraic solution to a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial" title="Polynomial">polynomial</a> equation is related to the structure of a group of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permutation" title="Permutation">permutations</a> associated with the roots of the polynomial, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois_group" title="Galois group">Galois group</a> of the polynomial. He found that an equation could be solved in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nth_root" title="Nth root">radicals</a> if one can find a series of subgroups of its Galois group, each one normal in its successor with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abelian_group" title="Abelian group">abelian</a> quotient, or its Galois group is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solvable_group" title="Solvable group">solvable</a>. This proved to be a fertile approach, which later mathematicians adapted to many other fields of mathematics besides the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_equations" title="Theory of equations">theory of equations</a> to which Galois originally applied it.<sup id="cite_ref-lie_18-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_note-lie-18"><span>[</span>18<span>]</span></a></sup></p> +<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Analysis">Analysis</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C3%89variste_Galois&action=edit§ion=9" title="Edit section: Analysis">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> +<table class="metadata plainlinks ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"> +<tbody><tr> +<td class="mbox-image"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="image"><img alt="[icon]" src="./Évariste Galois - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia_files/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" width="20" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x"></a></td> +<td class="mbox-text"><span class="mbox-text-span">This section requires <a class="external text" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C3%89variste_Galois&action=edit">expansion</a>. <small><i>(February 2009)</i></small></span></td> +</tr> +</tbody></table> +<p>Galois also made some contributions to the theory of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abelian_integral" title="Abelian integral">Abelian integrals</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continued_fraction" title="Continued fraction">continued fractions</a>.</p> +<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C3%89variste_Galois&action=edit§ion=10" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> +<ul> +<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_theory" title="Group theory">Group theory</a></li> +<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_%C3%89variste_Galois" title="List of things named after Évariste Galois">List of things named after Évariste Galois</a></li> +</ul> +<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C3%89variste_Galois&action=edit§ion=11" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> +<div class="reflist references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;"> +<ol class="references"> +<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-1"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </span>^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stewart, J., et al. <i>Algebra and Trigonometry</i>. p. 334.</span></li> +<li id="cite_note-stewart-gt-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-stewart-gt_2-0"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </span><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-stewart-gt_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-stewart-gt_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Stewart, Ian (1973). <i>Galois Theory</i>. London: Chapman and Hall. pp. xvii–xxii. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-412-10800-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-412-10800-3">0-412-10800-3</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.au=Stewart%2C+Ian&rft.btitle=Galois+Theory&rft.date=1973&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-412-10800-3&rft.pages=xvii%E2%80%93xxii&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Chapman+and+Hall&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> +<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-3"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </span>^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Galois, Évariste (1828). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.numdam.org/item?id=AMPA_1828-1829__19__294_0">"Démonstration d'un théorème sur les fractions continues périodiques"</a>. <i>Annales de Mathématiques</i> <b>XIX</b>: 294.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.atitle=D%C3%A9monstration+d%27un+th%C3%A9or%C3%A8me+sur+les+fractions+continues+p%C3%A9riodiques&rft.aufirst=%C3%89variste&rft.au=Galois%2C+%C3%89variste&rft.aulast=Galois&rft.date=1828&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.numdam.org%2Fitem%3Fid%3DAMPA_1828-1829__19__294_0&rft.jtitle=Annales+de+Math%C3%A9matiques&rft.pages=294&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=XIX" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> +<li id="cite_note-rothman-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-rothman_4-0"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </span><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-rothman_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-rothman_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">Rothman, Tony. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physics.princeton.edu/~trothman/galois.html">"Genius and Biographers: The Fictionalization of Evariste Galois"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2009-02-04</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.aufirst=Tony&rft.aulast=Rothman&rft.au=Rothman%2C+Tony&rft.btitle=Genius+and+Biographers%3A+The+Fictionalization+of+Evariste+Galois&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physics.princeton.edu%2F~trothman%2Fgalois.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> +<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-5"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </span>^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Galois, Évariste (1830). "Analyse d'un Mémoire sur la résolution algébrique des équations". <i>Bulletin des Sciences mathématiques</i> <b>XIII</b>: 271.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.atitle=Analyse+d%27un+M%C3%A9moire+sur+la+r%C3%A9solution+alg%C3%A9brique+des+%C3%A9quations&rft.aufirst=%C3%89variste&rft.au=Galois%2C+%C3%89variste&rft.aulast=Galois&rft.date=1830&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+des+Sciences+math%C3%A9matiques&rft.pages=271&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=XIII" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> +<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-6"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </span>^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Galois, Évariste (1830). "Note sur la résolution des équations numériques". <i>Bulletin des Sciences mathématiques</i> <b>XIII</b>: 413.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.atitle=Note+sur+la+r%C3%A9solution+des+%C3%A9quations+num%C3%A9riques&rft.aufirst=%C3%89variste&rft.au=Galois%2C+%C3%89variste&rft.aulast=Galois&rft.date=1830&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+des+Sciences+math%C3%A9matiques&rft.pages=413&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=XIII" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> +<li id="cite_note-numtheory-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-numtheory_7-0"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </span><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-numtheory_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Galois, Évariste (1830). "Sur la théorie des nombres". <i>Bulletin des Sciences mathématiques</i> <b>XIII</b>: 428.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.atitle=Sur+la+th%C3%A9orie+des+nombres&rft.aufirst=%C3%89variste&rft.au=Galois%2C+%C3%89variste&rft.aulast=Galois&rft.date=1830&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+des+Sciences+math%C3%A9matiques&rft.pages=428&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=XIII" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> +<li id="cite_note-dupuy-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-dupuy_8-0"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </span><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-dupuy_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-dupuy_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Dupuy, Paul. "La vie d'Évariste Galois". <i>Annales de l'École Normale</i> <b>13</b>: 197–266.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.atitle=La+vie+d%27%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.au=Dupuy%2C+Paul&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.aulast=Dupuy&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annales+de+l%27%C3%89cole+Normale&rft.pages=197%E2%80%93266&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=13" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> +<li id="cite_note-dumas-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-dumas_9-0"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </span><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-dumas_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Dumas (père), Alexandre. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dumaspere.com/pages/bibliotheque/chapitre.php?lid=m3&cid=204">"CCIV"</a>. <i>Mes Mémoires</i>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4371-5595-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-4371-5595-2">1-4371-5595-2</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2010-04-13</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.atitle=Mes+M%C3%A9moires&rft.au=Dumas+%28p%C3%A8re%29%2C+Alexandre&rft.aufirst=Alexandre&rft.aulast=Dumas+%28p%C3%A8re%29&rft.btitle=CCIV&rft.genre=bookitem&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dumaspere.com%2Fpages%2Fbibliotheque%2Fchapitre.php%3Flid%3Dm3%26cid%3D204&rft.isbn=1-4371-5595-2&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> +<li id="cite_note-bell-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-bell_10-0"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </span><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-bell_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Bell, Eric Temple (1986). <i>Men of Mathematics</i>. New York: Simon and Schuster. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-62818-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-62818-6">0-671-62818-6</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.au=Bell%2C+Eric+Temple&rft.aufirst=Eric+Temple&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.btitle=Men+of+Mathematics&rft.date=1986&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-671-62818-6&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> +<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-11"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </span>^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Taton, R. (1947). "Les relations d'Évariste Galois avec les mathématiciens de son temps". <i>Revue d'histoire des sciences et de leurs applications</i> <b>1</b> (2): 114. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3406%2Frhs.1947.2607">10.3406/rhs.1947.2607</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.atitle=Les+relations+d%27%C3%89variste+Galois+avec+les+math%C3%A9maticiens+de+son+temps&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.aulast=Taton&rft.au=Taton%2C+R.&rft.date=1947&rft.genre=article&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Frhs.1947.2607&rft.issue=2&rft.jtitle=Revue+d%27histoire+des+sciences+et+de+leurs+applications&rft.pages=114&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=1" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> +<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-12"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </span>^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Bourgne, R.; J.-P. Azra (1962). <i>Écrits et mémoires mathématiques d'Évariste Galois</i>. Paris: Gauthier-Villars.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.au=Bourgne%2C+R.&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.aulast=Bourgne&rft.btitle=%C3%89crits+et+m%C3%A9moires+math%C3%A9matiques+d%27%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.date=1962&rft.genre=book&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Gauthier-Villars&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> +<li id="cite_note-chevalier-letter-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-chevalier-letter_13-0"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </span><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-chevalier-letter_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-chevalier-letter_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-chevalier-letter_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Galois, Évariste (1846). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb343487840/date1846">"Lettre de Galois à M. Auguste Chevalier"</a>. <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_de_Math%C3%A9matiques_Pures_et_Appliqu%C3%A9es" title="Journal de Mathématiques Pures et Appliquées">Journal de Mathématiques Pures et Appliquées</a></i> <b>XI</b>: 408–415<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2009-02-04</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.atitle=Lettre+de+Galois+%C3%A0+M.+Auguste+Chevalier&rft.aufirst=%C3%89variste&rft.au=Galois%2C+%C3%89variste&rft.aulast=Galois&rft.date=1846&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvisualiseur.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fcb343487840%2Fdate1846&rft.jtitle=Journal+de+Math%C3%A9matiques+Pures+et+Appliqu%C3%A9es&rft.pages=408%E2%80%93415&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=XI" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> +<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-14"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </span>^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Coutinho, S.C. (1999). <i>The Mathematics of Ciphers</i>. Natick: A K Peters, Ltd. pp. 127–128. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56881-082-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-56881-082-2">1-56881-082-2</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.au=Coutinho%2C+S.C.&rft.aufirst=S.C.&rft.aulast=Coutinho&rft.btitle=The+Mathematics+of+Ciphers&rft.date=1999&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=1-56881-082-2&rft.pages=127%E2%80%93128&rft.place=Natick&rft.pub=A+K+Peters%2C+Ltd.&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> +<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-15"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </span>^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Escofier, Jean-Pierre (2001). <i>Galois Theory</i>. Springer. p. 224. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-387-98765-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-387-98765-7">0-387-98765-7</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.au=Escofier%2C+Jean-Pierre&rft.aufirst=Jean-Pierre&rft.aulast=Escofier&rft.btitle=Galois+Theory&rft.date=2001&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-387-98765-7&rft.pages=224&rft.pub=Springer&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> +<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-16"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </span>^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Rigatelli, Laura Toti (1996). <i>Evariste Galois, 1811–1832 (Vita mathematica, 11)</i>. Birkhäuser. p. 114. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7643-5410-0" title="Special:BookSources/3-7643-5410-0">3-7643-5410-0</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.aufirst=Laura+Toti&rft.aulast=Rigatelli&rft.au=Rigatelli%2C+Laura+Toti&rft.btitle=Evariste+Galois%2C+1811%E2%80%931832+%28Vita+mathematica%2C+11%29&rft.date=1996&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=3-7643-5410-0&rft.pages=114&rft.pub=Birkh%C3%A4user&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> +<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-17"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </span>^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Galois, Évariste (1846). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb343487840/date1846">"OEuvres mathématiques d'Évariste Galois."</a>. <i>Journal des mathématiques pures et appliquées</i> <b>XI</b>: 381–444<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2009-02-04</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.atitle=OEuvres+math%C3%A9matiques+d%27%C3%89variste+Galois.&rft.aufirst=%C3%89variste&rft.au=Galois%2C+%C3%89variste&rft.aulast=Galois&rft.date=1846&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvisualiseur.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fcb343487840%2Fdate1846&rft.jtitle=Journal+des+math%C3%A9matiques+pures+et+appliqu%C3%A9es&rft.pages=381%E2%80%93444&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=XI" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> +<li id="cite_note-lie-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-lie_18-0"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </span><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-lie_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation conference">Lie, Sophus (1895). "Influence de Galois sur le Développement des Mathématiques". <i>Le centenaire de l'École Normale 1795–1895</i>. Hachette.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.atitle=Le+centenaire+de+l%27%C3%89cole+Normale+1795%E2%80%931895&rft.aufirst=Sophus&rft.aulast=Lie&rft.au=Lie%2C+Sophus&rft.btitle=Influence+de+Galois+sur+le+D%C3%A9veloppement+des+Math%C3%A9matiques&rft.date=1895&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.pub=Hachette&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> +<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-19"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </span>^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See also: Sophus Lie, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k290623/f71.image">"Influence de Galois sur le développement des mathématiques"</a> in: Évariste Galois, <i>Oeuvres Mathématiques publiées en 1846 dans le</i> Journal de Liouville (Sceaux, France: Éditions Jacques Gabay, 1989), appendix pages 1–9.</span></li> +<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-20"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </span>^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Letter, p. 410</span></li> +<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-21"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </span>^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Letter, p. 411</span></li> +<li id="cite_note-raw-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-raw_22-0"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </span>^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Arnott_Wilson" title="Robert Arnott Wilson">Wilson, Robert A.</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.maths.qmul.ac.uk/~raw/fsgs_files/intro.ps">"Chapter 1: Introduction"</a>. <i>The finite simple groups</i>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graduate_Texts_in_Mathematics" title="Graduate Texts in Mathematics">Graduate Texts in Mathematics</a> 251 <b>251</b>. Berlin, New York: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer-Verlag" title="Springer-Verlag" class="mw-redirect">Springer-Verlag</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-84800-988-2">10.1007/978-1-84800-988-2</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84800-987-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84800-987-5">978-1-84800-987-5</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zentralblatt_MATH" title="Zentralblatt MATH">Zbl</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zentralblatt-math.org/zmath/en/search/?format=complete&q=an:05622792">05622792</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.maths.qmul.ac.uk/~raw/fsgs.html">2007 preprint</a></span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.atitle=The+finite+simple+groups&rft.aufirst=Robert+A.&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.au=Wilson%2C+Robert+A.&rft.btitle=Chapter+1%3A+Introduction&rft.date=2009&rft.genre=bookitem&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.maths.qmul.ac.uk%2F~raw%2Ffsgs_files%2Fintro.ps&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-84800-988-2&rft_id=info%3Azbl%2F05622792&rft.isbn=978-1-84800-987-5&rft.place=Berlin%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.series=Graduate+Texts+in+Mathematics+251&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.volume=251" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> +<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-23"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </span>^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Letter, pp. 411–412</span></li> +<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois#cite_ref-24"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </span>^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.neverendingbooks.org/index.php/galois-last-letter.html">Galois's last letter</a>, Never Ending Books</span></li> +</ol> +</div> +<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C3%89variste_Galois&action=edit§ion=12" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> +<ul> +<li><span id="CITEREFArtin1998" class="citation"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Artin" title="Emil Artin">Artin, Emil</a> (1998), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://projecteuclid.org/euclid.ndml/1175197041"><i>Galois Theory</i></a>, Dover Publications, Inc., <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-62342-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-62342-4">0-486-62342-4</a></span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.au=Artin%2C+Emil&rft.aufirst=Emil&rft.aulast=Artin&rft.btitle=Galois+Theory&rft.date=1998&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fprojecteuclid.org%2Feuclid.ndml%2F1175197041&rft.isbn=0-486-62342-4&rft.pub=Dover+Publications%2C+Inc.&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span> – Reprinting of second revised edition of 1944, The University of Notre Dame Press.</li> +<li><span id="CITEREFAstruc1994" class="citation"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre_Astruc" title="Alexandre Astruc">Astruc, Alexandre</a> (1994), <i>Évariste Galois</i>, Grandes Biographies (in French), Flammarion, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-08-066675-4" title="Special:BookSources/2-08-066675-4">2-08-066675-4</a></span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.au=Astruc%2C+Alexandre&rft.aufirst=Alexandre&rft.aulast=Astruc&rft.btitle=%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.date=1994&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=2-08-066675-4&rft.pub=Flammarion&rft.series=Grandes+Biographies&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li> +<li><span id="CITEREFBell1937" class="citation"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Temple_Bell" title="Eric Temple Bell">Bell, E.T.</a> (1937), "Galois", <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Men_of_Mathematics" title="Men of Mathematics">Men of Mathematics</a></i> <b>2</b></span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.atitle=Men+of+Mathematics&rft.au=Bell%2C+E.T.&rft.aufirst=E.T.&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.btitle=Galois&rft.date=1937&rft.genre=bookitem&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.volume=2" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span>. Still in print.</li> +<li><span id="CITEREFEdwards1984" class="citation"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Edwards_(mathematician)" title="Harold Edwards (mathematician)">Edwards, Harold M.</a> (May 1984), <i>Galois Theory</i>, Graduate Texts in Mathematics 101, Springer-Verlag, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-387-90980-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-387-90980-X">0-387-90980-X</a></span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.au=Edwards%2C+Harold+M.&rft.aufirst=Harold+M.&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.btitle=Galois+Theory&rft.date=1984&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-387-90980-X&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.series=Graduate+Texts+in+Mathematics+101&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span> – This textbook explains Galois Thoery with historical development and includes an English translation of Galois's memoir.</li> +<li><span id="CITEREFEhrhardt2011" class="citation"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Caroline_Ehrhardt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caroline Ehrhardt (page does not exist)">Ehrhardt, Caroline</a> (2011), <i>Évariste Galois, la fabrication d'une icône mathématique</i>, En temps et lieux (in French), Editions de l'Ecole Pratiques de Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7132-2317-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7132-2317-4">978-2-7132-2317-4</a></span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.au=Ehrhardt%2C+Caroline&rft.aufirst=Caroline&rft.aulast=Ehrhardt&rft.btitle=%C3%89variste+Galois%2C+la+fabrication+d%27une+ic%C3%B4ne+math%C3%A9matique&rft.date=2011&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-2-7132-2317-4&rft.pub=Editions+de+l%27Ecole+Pratiques+de+Hautes+Etudes+en+Sciences+Sociales&rft.series=En+temps+et+lieux&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li> +<li><span id="CITEREFInfeld1948" class="citation"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_Infeld" title="Leopold Infeld">Infeld, Leopold</a> (1948), <i>Whom the Gods Love: The Story of Evariste Galois</i>, Classics in Mathematics Education Series, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reston,_Virginia" title="Reston, Virginia">Reston, Va</a>: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Council_of_Teachers_of_Mathematics" title="National Council of Teachers of Mathematics">National Council of Teachers of Mathematics</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87353-125-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-87353-125-6">0-87353-125-6</a></span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.aufirst=Leopold&rft.au=Infeld%2C+Leopold&rft.aulast=Infeld&rft.btitle=Whom+the+Gods+Love%3A+The+Story+of+Evariste+Galois&rft.date=1948&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-87353-125-6&rft.place=Reston%2C+Va&rft.pub=National+Council+of+Teachers+of+Mathematics&rft.series=Classics+in+Mathematics+Education+Series&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span> – Classic fictionalized biography by physicist Infeld.</li> +<li><span id="CITEREFLivio2006" class="citation"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario_Livio" title="Mario Livio">Livio, Mario</a> (2006), <i>The Equation That Couldn't Be Solved: How Mathematical Genius Discovered the Language of Symmetry</i>, Souvenir Press, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-285-63743-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-285-63743-6">0-285-63743-6</a></span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.aufirst=Mario&rft.aulast=Livio&rft.au=Livio%2C+Mario&rft.btitle=The+Equation+That+Couldn%27t+Be+Solved%3A+How+Mathematical+Genius+Discovered+the+Language+of+Symmetry&rft.date=2006&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-285-63743-6&rft.pub=Souvenir+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li> +<li><span id="CITEREFRigatelli1996" class="citation"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laura_Toti_Rigatelli&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laura Toti Rigatelli (page does not exist)">Rigatelli, Laura Toti</a> (1996), <i>Évariste Galois</i>, Birkhauser, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7643-5410-0" title="Special:BookSources/3-7643-5410-0">3-7643-5410-0</a></span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.aufirst=Laura+Toti&rft.aulast=Rigatelli&rft.au=Rigatelli%2C+Laura+Toti&rft.btitle=%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.date=1996&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=3-7643-5410-0&rft.pub=Birkhauser&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span> – This biography challenges the common myth concerning Galois's duel and death.</li> +<li><span id="CITEREFStewart1973" class="citation"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stewart_(mathematician)" title="Ian Stewart (mathematician)">Stewart, Ian</a> (1973), <i>Galois Theory</i>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapman_and_Hall" title="Chapman and Hall" class="mw-redirect">Chapman and Hall</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-412-10800-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-412-10800-3">0-412-10800-3</a></span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.au=Stewart%2C+Ian&rft.btitle=Galois+Theory&rft.date=1973&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-412-10800-3&rft.pub=Chapman+and+Hall&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span> – This comprehensive text on Galois Theory includes a brief biography of Galois himself.</li> +<li><span id="CITEREFTignol2001" class="citation"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean-Pierre_Tignol&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean-Pierre Tignol (page does not exist)">Tignol, Jean-Pierre</a> (2001), <i>Galois's theory of algebraic equations</i>, Singapore: World Scientific, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/981-02-4541-6" title="Special:BookSources/981-02-4541-6">981-02-4541-6</a></span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.aufirst=Jean-Pierre&rft.aulast=Tignol&rft.au=Tignol%2C+Jean-Pierre&rft.btitle=Galois%27s+theory+of+algebraic+equations&rft.date=2001&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=981-02-4541-6&rft.place=Singapore&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span> – Historical development of Galois theory.</li> +</ul> +<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C3%89variste_Galois&action=edit§ion=13" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> +<table class="metadata mbox-small plainlinks" style="border:1px solid #aaa; background-color:#f9f9f9;"> +<tbody><tr> +<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="./Évariste Galois - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia_files/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png" width="30" height="40" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x"></td> +<td class="mbox-text plainlist" style="">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <i><b><a href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:%C3%89variste_Galois" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Évariste Galois">Évariste Galois</a></b></i>.</td> +</tr> +</tbody></table> +<table class="metadata mbox-small plainlinks" style="border:1px solid #aaa; background-color:#f9f9f9;"> +<tbody><tr> +<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="./Évariste Galois - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia_files/60px-Wikiquote-logo-en.svg.png" width="40" height="40" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Wikiquote-logo-en.svg/60px-Wikiquote-logo-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Wikiquote-logo-en.svg/80px-Wikiquote-logo-en.svg.png 2x"></td> +<td class="mbox-text plainlist" style="">Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: <i><b><a href="http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/%C3%89variste_Galois" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Évariste Galois">Évariste Galois</a></b></i></td> +</tr> +</tbody></table> +<ul> +<li><span class="citation"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_J._O%27Connor_(mathematician)" title="John J. O'Connor (mathematician)" class="mw-redirect">O'Connor, John J.</a>; <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson" title="Edmund F. Robertson">Robertson, Edmund F.</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Galois.html">"Évariste Galois"</a>, <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacTutor_History_of_Mathematics_archive" title="MacTutor History of Mathematics archive">MacTutor History of Mathematics archive</a></i>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews" title="University of St Andrews">University of St Andrews</a></span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.atitle=MacTutor+History+of+Mathematics+archive&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.au=O%27Connor%2C+John+J.&rft.au=Robertson%2C+Edmund+F.&rft.btitle=%C3%89variste+Galois&rft.genre=bookitem&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk%2FBiographies%2FGalois.html&rft.pub=University+of+St+Andrews&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span>.</li> +<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.galois-group.net/">The Galois Archive</a> (biography, letters and texts in various languages)</li> +<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physics.princeton.edu/~trothman/galois.html">Genius and Biographers: The Fictionalization of Evariste Galois</a> by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Rothman" title="Tony Rothman">Tony Rothman</a></li> +<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.galois-group.net/dupuy/index.php">La vie d'Évariste Galois by Paul Dupuy</a> The first and still one of the most extensive biographies, referred to by every other serious biographer of Galois</li> +<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://perso.univ-rennes1.fr/antoine.chambert-loir/DJVU/">Œuvres Mathématiques</a> published in 1846 in the <i>Journal de Liouville</i>, converted to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djvu" title="Djvu" class="mw-redirect">Djvu</a> format by Prof. Antoine Chambert-Loir at the University of Rennes.</li> +<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://numericalmethods.eng.usf.edu/anecdotes/galois.html">A short biography</a> on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://numericalmethods.eng.usf.edu/">Holistic Numerical Methods Institute</a></li> +<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blog.mathsbank.co.uk/2010/10/evariste-galois-1811-1832.html">A brief biography</a> on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mathsbank.co.uk/">MathsBank.co.uk</a></li> +<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dumaspere.com/pages/bibliotheque/chapitre.php?lid=m3&cid=204">Alexandre Dumas, Mes Mémoires</a>, the relevant chapter of Alexandre Dumas's memoires where he mentions Galois and the banquet.</li> +<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://genealogy.math.ndsu.nodak.edu/id.php?id=55176">Évariste Galois</a> at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics_Genealogy_Project" title="Mathematics Genealogy Project">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></li> +<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.phys.uu.nl/~witte/EvaristeTheatricalTrailer3.wmv">Theatrical trailer of University College Utrecht's "Évariste – En Garde"</a></li> +<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J7X4W7kKW8g">A piece of music dedicated to Evariste Galois</a></li> +</ul> +<table cellspacing="0" class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0;"> +<tbody><tr> +<td style="padding:2px;"> +<table cellspacing="0" class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"> +<tbody><tr> +<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authority_control" title="Authority control">Authority control</a></th> +<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" 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href="http://isni-url.oclc.nl/isni/0000000108983441">0000 0001 0898 3441</a></span></li> +<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_Authority_File" title="Integrated Authority File">GND</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/118537393">118537393</a></span></li> +<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale_de_France" title="Bibliothèque nationale de France">BNF</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11903995k">cb11903995k</a></span></li> +</ul> +</div> +</td> +</tr> +</tbody></table> +</td> +</tr> +</tbody></table> +<table id="persondata" class="persondata" style="border:1px solid #aaa; display:none; speak:none;"> +<tbody><tr> +<th colspan="2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Persondata" title="Wikipedia:Persondata">Persondata</a></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="persondata-label" style="color:#aaa;">Name</td> +<td>Galois, Évariste</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="persondata-label" style="color:#aaa;">Alternative names</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="persondata-label" style="color:#aaa;">Short description</td> +<td>French mathematician.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="persondata-label" style="color:#aaa;">Date of birth</td> +<td>25 October 1811</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="persondata-label" style="color:#aaa;">Place of birth</td> +<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourg-la-Reine" title="Bourg-la-Reine">Bourg-la-Reine</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" title="France">France</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="persondata-label" style="color:#aaa;">Date of death</td> +<td>31 May 1832</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="persondata-label" style="color:#aaa;">Place of death</td> +<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" title="France">France</a></td> +</tr> +</tbody></table> +<p><span 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href="http://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4_%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE" title="এভারিস্ত গালোয়া – Bengali" lang="bn" hreflang="bn">বাংলা</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-zh-min-nan"><a href="http://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89variste_Galois" title="Évariste Galois – Chinese (Min Nan)" lang="zh-min-nan" hreflang="zh-min-nan">Bân-lâm-gú</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-be"><a href="http://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%B0" title="Эварыст Галуа – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be">Беларуская</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-be-x-old"><a href="http://be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%B0" title="Эварыст Галюа – беларуская (тарашкевіца)" lang="be-x-old" hreflang="be-x-old">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-bg"><a href="http://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B0" title="Еварист Галоа – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg">Български</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-bs"><a href="http://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evariste_Galois" title="Evariste Galois – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs">Bosanski</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-ca"><a href="http://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89variste_Galois" title="Évariste Galois – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca">Català</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-cs"><a href="http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89variste_Galois" title="Évariste Galois – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs">Čeština</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-co"><a href="http://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89variste_Galois" title="Évariste Galois – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co">Corsu</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-da"><a href="http://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89variste_Galois" title="Évariste Galois – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da">Dansk</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-de"><a href="http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89variste_Galois" title="Évariste Galois – German" lang="de" hreflang="de">Deutsch</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-el"><a href="http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%B2%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%AF%CF%83%CF%84_%CE%93%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%AC" title="Εβαρίστ Γκαλουά – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el">Ελληνικά</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-es"><a href="http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89variste_Galois" title="Évariste Galois – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es">Español</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-eo"><a href="http://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89variste_Galois" title="Évariste Galois – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo">Esperanto</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-eu"><a href="http://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89variste_Galois" title="Évariste Galois – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu">Euskara</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-fa"><a href="http://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA_%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A7" title="اواریست گالوا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa">فارسی</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-fr"><a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89variste_Galois" title="Évariste Galois – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr">Français</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-gl"><a href="http://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89variste_Galois" title="Évariste Galois – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl">Galego</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-ko"><a href="http://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%90%EB%B0%94%EB%A6%AC%EC%8A%A4%ED%8A%B8_%EA%B0%88%EB%A3%A8%EC%95%84" title="에바리스트 갈루아 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko">한국어</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-hy"><a href="http://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A1_%D4%B7%D5%BE%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%BF" title="Գալուա Էվարիստ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy">Հայերեն</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-io"><a href="http://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89variste_Galois" title="Évariste Galois – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io">Ido</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-it"><a href="http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89variste_Galois" title="Évariste Galois – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it">Italiano</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-he FA" title="This is a featured article in this language."><a href="http://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98_%D7%92%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%90%D7%94" title="אווריסט גלואה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he">עברית</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-ka"><a href="http://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2_%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%90" title="ევარისტ გალუა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka">ქართული</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-ht"><a href="http://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evariste_Galois" title="Evariste Galois – Haitian" lang="ht" hreflang="ht">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-la"><a href="http://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaristus_Galois" title="Evaristus Galois – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la">Latina</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-lv"><a href="http://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evarists_Galu%C4%81" title="Evarists Galuā – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv">Latviešu</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-lb"><a href="http://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89variste_Galois" title="Évariste Galois – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-hu"><a href="http://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89variste_Galois" title="Évariste Galois – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu">Magyar</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-mk"><a href="http://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B0" title="Еварист Галоа – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk">Македонски</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-mn"><a href="http://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%B0" title="Эварист Галуа – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn">Монгол</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-nl"><a href="http://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89variste_Galois" title="Évariste Galois – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl">Nederlands</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-ja"><a href="http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A8%E3%83%B4%E3%82%A1%E3%83%AA%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88%E3%83%BB%E3%82%AC%E3%83%AD%E3%82%A2" title="エヴァリスト・ガロア – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja">日本語</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-no"><a href="http://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89variste_Galois" title="Évariste Galois – Norwegian (bokmål)" lang="no" hreflang="no">Norsk bokmål</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-nn"><a href="http://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89variste_Galois" title="Évariste Galois – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn">Norsk nynorsk</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-nov"><a href="http://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evariste_Galois" title="Evariste Galois – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov">Novial</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-oc"><a href="http://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89variste_Galois" title="Évariste Galois – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc">Occitan</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-uz"><a href="http://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89variste_Galois" title="Évariste Galois – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz">Oʻzbekcha</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-pms"><a href="http://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89variste_Galois" title="Évariste Galois – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms">Piemontèis</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-pl"><a href="http://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89variste_Galois" title="Évariste Galois – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl">Polski</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-pt"><a href="http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89variste_Galois" title="Évariste Galois – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt">Português</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-ro"><a href="http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89variste_Galois" title="Évariste Galois – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro">Română</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-ru"><a href="http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%B0,_%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82" title="Галуа, Эварист – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru">Русский</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-scn"><a href="http://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evariste_Galois" title="Evariste Galois – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn">Sicilianu</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-sk"><a href="http://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89variste_Galois" title="Évariste Galois – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk">Slovenčina</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-sl"><a href="http://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89variste_Galois" title="Évariste Galois – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl">Slovenščina</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-sr"><a href="http://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B0" title="Еварист Галоа – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr">Српски / srpski</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-fi"><a href="http://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89variste_Galois" title="Évariste Galois – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi">Suomi</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-sv"><a href="http://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89variste_Galois" title="Évariste Galois – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv">Svenska</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-ta"><a href="http://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE" title="எவரிஸ்ட் கால்வா – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta">தமிழ்</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-th"><a href="http://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%8C_%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A7" title="เอวาริสต์ กาลัว – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th">ไทย</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-tr"><a href="http://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89variste_Galois" title="Évariste Galois – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr">Türkçe</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-uk"><a href="http://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%B0" title="Еварист Галуа – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk">Українська</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-ur"><a href="http://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A7" title="گیلوا – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur">اردو</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-vi"><a href="http://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89variste_Galois" title="Évariste Galois – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi">Tiếng Việt</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-fiu-vro"><a href="http://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois%27_%C3%89variste" title="Galois' Évariste – Võro" lang="fiu-vro" hreflang="fiu-vro">Võro</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-zh-classical"><a href="http://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%BD%E7%BE%85%E8%8F%AF" title="伽羅華 – Classical Chinese" lang="zh-classical" hreflang="zh-classical">文言</a></li> + <li class="interwiki-zh"><a 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