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-\RequirePackage{ifpdf}
-\ifpdf % si on est en pdflatex
-\documentclass[a4paper,pdftex]{article}
-\else
-\documentclass[a4paper]{article}
-\fi
-\pagestyle{plain}
-
-% yay les symboles
-\usepackage{stmaryrd}
-\usepackage{amssymb}
-\usepackage{url}
-%\usepackage{multicol}
-\usepackage{hevea}
-\usepackage{fullpage}
-\usepackage[latin1]{inputenc}
-\usepackage[english]{babel}
-
-\ifpdf % si on est en pdflatex
- \usepackage[pdftex]{graphicx}
-\else
- \usepackage[dvips]{graphicx}
-\fi
-
-\input{../common/version.tex}
-%\input{../macros.tex}
-
-% Making hevea happy
-%HEVEA \renewcommand{\textbar}{|}
-%HEVEA \renewcommand{\textunderscore}{\_}
-
-\def\Question#1{\stepcounter{question}\subsubsection{#1}}
-
-% version et date
-\def\faqversion{0.1}
-
-% les macros d'amour
-\def\Coq{\textsc{Coq}}
-\def\Why{\textsc{Why}}
-\def\Caduceus{\textsc{Caduceus}}
-\def\Krakatoa{\textsc{Krakatoa}}
-\def\Ltac{\textsc{Ltac}}
-\def\CoqIde{\textsc{CoqIde}}
-
-\newcommand{\coqtt}[1]{{\tt #1}}
-\newcommand{\coqimp}{{\mbox{\tt ->}}}
-\newcommand{\coqequiv}{{\mbox{\tt <->}}}
-
-
-% macro pour les tactics
-\def\split{{\tt split}}
-\def\assumption{{\tt assumption}}
-\def\auto{{\tt auto}}
-\def\trivial{{\tt trivial}}
-\def\tauto{{\tt tauto}}
-\def\left{{\tt left}}
-\def\right{{\tt right}}
-\def\decompose{{\tt decompose}}
-\def\intro{{\tt intro}}
-\def\intros{{\tt intros}}
-\def\field{{\tt field}}
-\def\ring{{\tt ring}}
-\def\apply{{\tt apply}}
-\def\exact{{\tt exact}}
-\def\cut{{\tt cut}}
-\def\assert{{\tt assert}}
-\def\solve{{\tt solve}}
-\def\idtac{{\tt idtac}}
-\def\fail{{\tt fail}}
-\def\existstac{{\tt exists}}
-\def\firstorder{{\tt firstorder}}
-\def\congruence{{\tt congruence}}
-\def\gb{{\tt gb}}
-\def\generalize{{\tt generalize}}
-\def\abstracttac{{\tt abstract}}
-\def\eapply{{\tt eapply}}
-\def\unfold{{\tt unfold}}
-\def\rewrite{{\tt rewrite}}
-\def\replace{{\tt replace}}
-\def\simpl{{\tt simpl}}
-\def\elim{{\tt elim}}
-\def\set{{\tt set}}
-\def\pose{{\tt pose}}
-\def\case{{\tt case}}
-\def\destruct{{\tt destruct}}
-\def\reflexivity{{\tt reflexivity}}
-\def\transitivity{{\tt transitivity}}
-\def\symmetry{{\tt symmetry}}
-\def\Focus{{\tt Focus}}
-\def\discriminate{{\tt discriminate}}
-\def\contradiction{{\tt contradiction}}
-\def\intuition{{\tt intuition}}
-\def\try{{\tt try}}
-\def\repeat{{\tt repeat}}
-\def\eauto{{\tt eauto}}
-\def\subst{{\tt subst}}
-\def\symmetryin{{\tt symmetryin}}
-\def\instantiate{{\tt instantiate}}
-\def\inversion{{\tt inversion}}
-\def\Defined{{\tt Defined}}
-\def\Qed{{\tt Qed}}
-\def\pattern{{\tt pattern}}
-\def\Type{{\tt Type}}
-\def\Prop{{\tt Prop}}
-\def\Set{{\tt Set}}
-
-
-\newcommand\vfile[2]{\ahref{#1}{\tt {#2}.v}}
-\urldef{\InitWf}\url
- {http://coq.inria.fr/library/Coq.Init.Wf.html}
-\urldef{\LogicBerardi}\url
- {http://coq.inria.fr/library/Coq.Logic.Berardi.html}
-\urldef{\LogicClassical}\url
- {http://coq.inria.fr/library/Coq.Logic.Classical.html}
-\urldef{\LogicClassicalFacts}\url
- {http://coq.inria.fr/library/Coq.Logic.ClassicalFacts.html}
-\urldef{\LogicClassicalDescription}\url
- {http://coq.inria.fr/library/Coq.Logic.ClassicalDescription.html}
-\urldef{\LogicProofIrrelevance}\url
- {http://coq.inria.fr/library/Coq.Logic.ProofIrrelevance.html}
-\urldef{\LogicEqdep}\url
- {http://coq.inria.fr/library/Coq.Logic.Eqdep.html}
-\urldef{\LogicEqdepDec}\url
- {http://coq.inria.fr/library/Coq.Logic.Eqdep_dec.html}
-
-
-
-
-\begin{document}
-\bibliographystyle{plain}
-\newcounter{question}
-\renewcommand{\thesubsubsection}{\arabic{question}}
-
-%%%%%%% Coq pour les nuls %%%%%%%
-
-\title{Coq Version {\coqversion} for the Clueless\\
- \large(\protect\ref{lastquestion}
- \ Hints)
-}
-\author{Pierre Castéran \and Hugo Herbelin \and Florent Kirchner \and Benjamin Monate \and Julien Narboux}
-\maketitle
-
-%%%%%%%
-
-\begin{abstract}
-This note intends to provide an easy way to get acquainted with the
-{\Coq} theorem prover. It tries to formulate appropriate answers
-to some of the questions any newcomers will face, and to give
-pointers to other references when possible.
-\end{abstract}
-
-%%%%%%%
-
-%\begin{multicols}{2}
-\tableofcontents
-%\end{multicols}
-
-%%%%%%%
-
-\newpage
-
-\section{Introduction}
-This FAQ is the sum of the questions that came to mind as we developed
-proofs in \Coq. Since we are singularly short-minded, we wrote the
-answers we found on bits of papers to have them at hand whenever the
-situation occurs again. This is pretty much the result of that: a
-collection of tips one can refer to when proofs become intricate. Yes,
-this means we won't take the blame for the shortcomings of this
-FAQ. But if you want to contribute and send in your own question and
-answers, feel free to write to us\ldots
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-
-\section{Presentation}
-
-\Question{What is {\Coq}?}\label{whatiscoq}
-The {\Coq} tool is a formal proof management system: a proof done with {\Coq} is mechanically checked by the machine.
-In particular, {\Coq} allows:
-\begin{itemize}
- \item the definition of mathematical objects and programming objects,
- \item to state mathematical theorems and software specifications,
- \item to interactively develop formal proofs of these theorems,
- \item to check these proofs by a small certification ``kernel''.
-\end{itemize}
-{\Coq} is based on a logical framework called ``Calculus of Inductive
-Constructions'' extended by a modular development system for theories.
-
-\Question{Did you really need to name it like that?}
-Some French computer scientists have a tradition of naming their
-software as animal species: Caml, Elan, Foc or Phox are examples
-of this tacit convention. In French, ``coq'' means rooster, and it
-sounds like the initials of the Calculus of Constructions CoC on which
-it is based.
-
-\Question{Is {\Coq} a theorem prover?}
-
-{\Coq} comes with decision and semi-decision procedures (
-propositional calculus, Presburger's arithmetic, ring and field
-simplification, resolution, ...) but the main style for proving
-theorems is interactively by using LCF-style tactics.
-
-
-\Question{What are the other theorem provers?}
-Many other theorem provers are available for use nowadays.
-Isabelle, HOL, HOL Light, Lego, Nuprl, PVS are examples of provers that are fairly similar
-to {\Coq} by the way they interact with the user. Other relatives of
-{\Coq} are ACL2, Agda/Alfa, Twelf, Kiv, Mizar, NqThm,
-\begin{htmlonly}%
-Omega\ldots
-\end{htmlonly}
-\begin{latexonly}%
-{$\Omega$}mega\ldots
-\end{latexonly}
-
-\Question{What do I have to trust when I see a proof checked by Coq?}
-
-You have to trust:
-
-\begin{description}
-\item[The theory behind Coq] The theory of {\Coq} version 8.0 is
-generally admitted to be consistent wrt Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory +
-inaccessible cardinals. Proofs of consistency of subsystems of the
-theory of Coq can be found in the literature.
-\item[The Coq kernel implementation] You have to trust that the
-implementation of the {\Coq} kernel mirrors the theory behind {\Coq}. The
-kernel is intentionally small to limit the risk of conceptual or
-accidental implementation bugs.
-\item[The Objective Caml compiler] The {\Coq} kernel is written using the
-Objective Caml language but it uses only the most standard features
-(no object, no label ...), so that it is highly unprobable that an
-Objective Caml bug breaks the consistency of {\Coq} without breaking all
-other kinds of features of {\Coq} or of other software compiled with
-Objective Caml.
-\item[Your hardware] In theory, if your hardware does not work
-properly, it can accidentally be the case that False becomes
-provable. But it is more likely the case that the whole {\Coq} system
-will be unusable. You can check your proof using different computers
-if you feel the need to.
-\item[Your axioms] Your axioms must be consistent with the theory
-behind {\Coq}.
-\end{description}
-
-
-\Question{Where can I find information about the theory behind {\Coq}?}
-\begin{description}
-\item[The Calculus of Inductive Constructions] The
-\ahref{http://coq.inria.fr/doc/Reference-Manual006.html}{corresponding}
-chapter and the chapter on
-\ahref{http://coq.inria.fr/doc/Reference-Manual007.html}{modules} in
-the {\Coq} Reference Manual.
-\item[Type theory] A book~\cite{ProofsTypes} or some lecture
-notes~\cite{Types:Dowek}.
-\item[Inductive types]
-Christine Paulin-Mohring's habilitation thesis~\cite{Pau96b}.
-\item[Co-Inductive types]
-Eduardo Giménez' thesis~\cite{EGThese}.
-\item[Miscellaneous] A
-\ahref{http://coq.inria.fr/doc/biblio.html}{bibliography} about Coq
-\end{description}
-
-
-\Question{How can I use {\Coq} to prove programs?}
-
-You can either extract a program from a proof by using the extraction
-mechanism or use dedicated tools, such as
-\ahref{http://why.lri.fr}{\Why},
-\ahref{http://krakatoa.lri.fr}{\Krakatoa},
-\ahref{http://why.lri.fr/caduceus/index.en.html}{\Caduceus}, to prove
-annotated programs written in other languages.
-
-%\Question{How many {\Coq} users are there?}
-%
-%An estimation is about 100 regular users.
-
-\Question{How old is {\Coq}?}
-
-The first implementation is from 1985 (it was named {\sf CoC} which is
-the acronym of the name of the logic it implemented: the Calculus of
-Constructions). The first official release of {\Coq} (version 4.10)
-was distributed in 1989.
-
-\Question{What are the \Coq-related tools?}
-
-There are graphical user interfaces:
-\begin{description}
-\item[Coqide] A GTK based GUI for \Coq.
-\item[Pcoq] A GUI for {\Coq} with proof by pointing and pretty printing.
-\item[coqwc] A tool similar to {\tt wc} to count lines in {\Coq} files.
-\item[Proof General] A emacs mode for {\Coq} and many other proof assistants.
-\item[ProofWeb] The ProofWeb online web interface for {\Coq} (and other proof assistants), with a focus on teaching.
-\item[ProverEditor] is an experimental Eclipse plugin with support for {\Coq}.
-\end{description}
-
-There are documentation and browsing tools:
-
-\begin{description}
-\item[Helm/Mowgli] A rendering, searching and publishing tool.
-\item[coq-tex] A tool to insert {\Coq} examples within .tex files.
-\item[coqdoc] A documentation tool for \Coq.
-\item[coqgraph] A tool to generate a dependency graph from {\Coq} sources.
-\end{description}
-
-There are front-ends for specific languages:
-
-\begin{description}
-\item[Why] A back-end generator of verification conditions.
-\item[Krakatoa] A Java code certification tool that uses both {\Coq} and {\Why} to verify the soundness of implementations with regards to the specifications.
-\item[Caduceus] A C code certification tool that uses both {\Coq} and \Why.
-\item[Zenon] A first-order theorem prover.
-\item[Focal] The \ahref{http://focal.inria.fr}{Focal} project aims at building an environment to develop certified computer algebra libraries.
-\item[Concoqtion] is a dependently-typed extension of Objective Caml (and of MetaOCaml) with specifications expressed and proved in Coq.
-\item[Ynot] is an extension of Coq providing a "Hoare Type Theory" for specifying higher-order, imperative and concurrent programs.
-\item[Ott]is a tool to translate the descriptions of the syntax and semantics of programming languages to the syntax of Coq, or of other provers.
-\end{description}
-
-\Question{What are the high-level tactics of \Coq}
-
-\begin{itemize}
-\item Decision of quantifier-free Presburger's Arithmetic
-\item Simplification of expressions on rings and fields
-\item Decision of closed systems of equations
-\item Semi-decision of first-order logic
-\item Prolog-style proof search, possibly involving equalities
-\end{itemize}
-
-\Question{What are the main libraries available for \Coq}
-
-\begin{itemize}
-\item Basic Peano's arithmetic, binary integer numbers, rational numbers,
-\item Real analysis,
-\item Libraries for lists, boolean, maps, floating-point numbers,
-\item Libraries for relations, sets and constructive algebra,
-\item Geometry
-\end{itemize}
-
-
-\Question{What are the mathematical applications for {\Coq}?}
-
-{\Coq} is used for formalizing mathematical theories, for teaching,
-and for proving properties of algorithms or programs libraries.
-
-The largest mathematical formalization has been done at the University
-of Nijmegen (see the
-\ahref{http://c-corn.cs.ru.nl}{Constructive Coq
-Repository at Nijmegen}).
-
-A symbolic step has also been obtained by formalizing in full a proof
-of the Four Color Theorem.
-
-\Question{What are the industrial applications for {\Coq}?}
-
-{\Coq} is used e.g. to prove properties of the JavaCard system
-(especially by Schlumberger and Trusted Logic). It has
-also been used to formalize the semantics of the Lucid-Synchrone
-data-flow synchronous calculus used by Esterel-Technologies.
-
-\iffalse
-todo christine compilo lustre?
-\fi
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-
-\section{Documentation}
-
-\Question{Where can I find documentation about {\Coq}?}
-All the documentation about \Coq, from the reference manual~\cite{Coq:manual} to
-friendly tutorials~\cite{Coq:Tutorial} and documentation of the standard library, is available
-\ahref{http://coq.inria.fr/doc-eng.html}{online}.
-All these documents are viewable either in browsable HTML, or as
-downloadable postscripts.
-
-\Question{Where can I find this FAQ on the web?}
-
-This FAQ is available online at \ahref{http://coq.inria.fr/faq}{\url{http://coq.inria.fr/faq}}.
-
-\Question{How can I submit suggestions / improvements / additions for this FAQ?}
-
-This FAQ is unfinished (in the sense that there are some obvious
-sections that are missing). Please send contributions to Coq-Club.
-
-\Question{Is there any mailing list about {\Coq}?}
-The main {\Coq} mailing list is \url{coq-club@inria.fr}, which
-broadcasts questions and suggestions about the implementation, the
-logical formalism or proof developments. See
-\ahref{http://coq.inria.fr/mailman/listinfo/coq-club}{\url{https://sympa-roc.inria.fr/wws/info/coq-club}} for
-subscription. For bugs reports see question \ref{coqbug}.
-
-\Question{Where can I find an archive of the list?}
-The archives of the {\Coq} mailing list are available at
-\ahref{http://pauillac.inria.fr/pipermail/coq-club}{\url{https://sympa-roc.inria.fr/wws/arc/coq-club}}.
-
-
-\Question{How can I be kept informed of new releases of {\Coq}?}
-
-New versions of {\Coq} are announced on the coq-club mailing list.
-
-
-\Question{Is there any book about {\Coq}?}
-
-The first book on \Coq, Yves Bertot and Pierre Castéran's Coq'Art has been published by Springer-Verlag in 2004:
-\begin{quote}
-``This book provides a pragmatic introduction to the development of
-proofs and certified programs using \Coq. With its large collection of
-examples and exercises it is an invaluable tool for researchers,
-students, and engineers interested in formal methods and the
-development of zero-default software.''
-\end{quote}
-
-\Question{Where can I find some {\Coq} examples?}
-
-There are examples in the manual~\cite{Coq:manual} and in the
-Coq'Art~\cite{Coq:coqart} exercises \ahref{\url{http://www.labri.fr/Perso/~casteran/CoqArt/index.html}}{\url{http://www.labri.fr/Perso/~casteran/CoqArt/index.html}}.
-You can also find large developments using
-{\Coq} in the {\Coq} user contributions:
-\ahref{http://coq.inria.fr/contribs}{\url{http://coq.inria.fr/contribs}}.
-
-\Question{How can I report a bug?}\label{coqbug}
-
-You can use the web interface accessible at \ahref{http://coq.inria.fr/bugs}{\url{http://coq.inria.fr/bugs}}.
-
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-
-\section{Installation}
-
-\Question{What is the license of {\Coq}?}
-{\Coq} is distributed under the GNU Lesser General License
-(LGPL).
-
-\Question{Where can I find the sources of {\Coq}?}
-The sources of {\Coq} can be found online in the tar.gz'ed packages
-(\ahref{http://coq.inria.fr}{\url{http://coq.inria.fr}}, link
-``download''). Development sources can be accessed at
-\ahref{https://gforge.inria.fr/scm/?group_id=269}{\url{https://gforge.inria.fr/scm/?group_id=269}}
-
-\Question{On which platform is {\Coq} available?}
-Compiled binaries are available for Linux, MacOS X, and Windows. The
-sources can be easily compiled on all platforms supporting Objective
-Caml.
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-
-\section{The logic of {\Coq}}
-
-\subsection{General}
-
-\Question{What is the logic of \Coq?}
-
-{\Coq} is based on an axiom-free type theory called
-the Calculus of Inductive Constructions (see Coquand \cite{CoHu86},
-Luo~\cite{Luo90}
-and Coquand--Paulin-Mohring \cite{CoPa89}). It includes higher-order
-functions and predicates, inductive and co-inductive datatypes and
-predicates, and a stratified hierarchy of sets.
-
-\Question{Is \Coq's logic intuitionistic or classical?}
-
-{\Coq}'s logic is modular. The core logic is intuitionistic
-(i.e. excluded-middle $A\vee\neg A$ is not granted by default). It can
-be extended to classical logic on demand by requiring an
-optional module stating $A\vee\neg A$.
-
-\Question{Can I define non-terminating programs in \Coq?}
-
-All programs in {\Coq} are terminating. Especially, loops
-must come with an evidence of their termination.
-
-Non-terminating programs can be simulated by passing around a
-bound on how long the program is allowed to run before dying.
-
-\Question{How is equational reasoning working in {\Coq}?}
-
- {\Coq} comes with an internal notion of computation called
-{\em conversion} (e.g. $(x+1)+y$ is internally equivalent to
-$(x+y)+1$; similarly applying argument $a$ to a function mapping $x$
-to some expression $t$ converts to the expression $t$ where $x$ is
-replaced by $a$). This notion of conversion (which is decidable
-because {\Coq} programs are terminating) covers a certain part of
-equational reasoning but is limited to sequential evaluation of
-expressions of (not necessarily closed) programs. Besides conversion,
-equations have to be treated by hand or using specialised tactics.
-
-\subsection{Axioms}
-
-\Question{What axioms can be safely added to {\Coq}?}
-
-There are a few typical useful axioms that are independent from the
-Calculus of Inductive Constructions and that are considered consistent with
-the theory of {\Coq}.
-Most of these axioms are stated in the directory {\tt Logic} of the
-standard library of {\Coq}. The most interesting ones are
-
-\begin{itemize}
-\item Excluded-middle: $\forall A:Prop, A \vee \neg A$
-\item Proof-irrelevance: $\forall A:Prop \forall p_1 p_2:A, p_1=p_2$
-\item Unicity of equality proofs (or equivalently Streicher's axiom $K$):
-$\forall A \forall x y:A \forall p_1 p_2:x=y, p_1=p_2$
-\item Hilbert's $\epsilon$ operator: if $A \neq \emptyset$, then there is $\epsilon_P$ such that $\exists x P(x) \rightarrow P(\epsilon_P)$
-\item Church's $\iota$ operator: if $A \neq \emptyset$, then there is $\iota_P$ such that $\exists! x P(x) \rightarrow P(\iota_P)$
-\item The axiom of unique choice: $\forall x \exists! y R(x,y) \rightarrow \exists f \forall x R(x,f(x))$
-\item The functional axiom of choice: $\forall x \exists y R(x,y) \rightarrow \exists f \forall x R(x,f(x))$
-\item Extensionality of predicates: $\forall P Q:A\rightarrow Prop, (\forall x, P(x) \leftrightarrow Q(x)) \rightarrow P=Q$
-\item Extensionality of functions: $\forall f g:A\rightarrow B, (\forall x, f(x)=g(x)) \rightarrow f=g$
-\end{itemize}
-
-Here is a summary of the relative strength of these axioms, most
-proofs can be found in directory {\tt Logic} of the standard library.
-The justification of their validity relies on the interpretability in
-set theory.
-
-%HEVEA\imgsrc{axioms.png}
-%BEGIN LATEX
-\ifpdf % si on est en pdflatex
-\includegraphics[width=1.0\textwidth]{axioms.png}
-\else
-\includegraphics[width=1.0\textwidth]{axioms.eps}
-\fi
-%END LATEX
-
-\Question{What standard axioms are inconsistent with {\Coq}?}
-
-The axiom of unique choice together with classical logic
-(e.g. excluded-middle) are inconsistent in the variant of the Calculus
-of Inductive Constructions where {\Set} is impredicative.
-
-As a consequence, the functional form of the axiom of choice and
-excluded-middle, or any form of the axiom of choice together with
-predicate extensionality are inconsistent in the {\Set}-impredicative
-version of the Calculus of Inductive Constructions.
-
-The main purpose of the \Set-predicative restriction of the Calculus
-of Inductive Constructions is precisely to accommodate these axioms
-which are quite standard in mathematical usage.
-
-The $\Set$-predicative system is commonly considered consistent by
-interpreting it in a standard set-theoretic boolean model, even with
-classical logic, axiom of choice and predicate extensionality added.
-
-\Question{What is Streicher's axiom $K$}
-\label{Streicher}
-
-Streicher's axiom $K$~\cite{HofStr98} is an axiom that asserts
-dependent elimination of reflexive equality proofs.
-
-\begin{coq_example*}
-Axiom Streicher_K :
- forall (A:Type) (x:A) (P: x=x -> Prop),
- P (refl_equal x) -> forall p: x=x, P p.
-\end{coq_example*}
-
-In the general case, axiom $K$ is an independent statement of the
-Calculus of Inductive Constructions. However, it is true on decidable
-domains (see file \vfile{\LogicEqdepDec}{Eqdep\_dec}). It is also
-trivially a consequence of proof-irrelevance (see
-\ref{proof-irrelevance}) hence of classical logic.
-
-Axiom $K$ is equivalent to {\em Uniqueness of Identity Proofs} \cite{HofStr98}
-
-\begin{coq_example*}
-Axiom UIP : forall (A:Set) (x y:A) (p1 p2: x=y), p1 = p2.
-\end{coq_example*}
-
-Axiom $K$ is also equivalent to {\em Uniqueness of Reflexive Identity Proofs} \cite{HofStr98}
-
-\begin{coq_example*}
-Axiom UIP_refl : forall (A:Set) (x:A) (p: x=x), p = refl_equal x.
-\end{coq_example*}
-
-Axiom $K$ is also equivalent to
-
-\begin{coq_example*}
-Axiom
- eq_rec_eq :
- forall (A:Set) (x:A) (P: A->Set) (p:P x) (h: x=x),
- p = eq_rect x P p x h.
-\end{coq_example*}
-
-It is also equivalent to the injectivity of dependent equality (dependent equality is itself equivalent to equality of dependent pairs).
-
-\begin{coq_example*}
-Inductive eq_dep (U:Set) (P:U -> Set) (p:U) (x:P p) :
-forall q:U, P q -> Prop :=
- eq_dep_intro : eq_dep U P p x p x.
-Axiom
- eq_dep_eq :
- forall (U:Set) (u:U) (P:U -> Set) (p1 p2:P u),
- eq_dep U P u p1 u p2 -> p1 = p2.
-\end{coq_example*}
-
-\Question{What is proof-irrelevance}
-\label{proof-irrelevance}
-
-A specificity of the Calculus of Inductive Constructions is to permit
-statements about proofs. This leads to the question of comparing two
-proofs of the same proposition. Identifying all proofs of the same
-proposition is called {\em proof-irrelevance}:
-$$
-\forall A:\Prop, \forall p q:A, p=q
-$$
-
-Proof-irrelevance (in {\Prop}) can be assumed without contradiction in
-{\Coq}. It expresses that only provability matters, whatever the exact
-form of the proof is. This is in harmony with the common purely
-logical interpretation of {\Prop}. Contrastingly, proof-irrelevance is
-inconsistent in {\Set} since there are types in {\Set}, such as the
-type of booleans, that provably have at least two distinct elements.
-
-Proof-irrelevance (in {\Prop}) is a consequence of classical logic
-(see proofs in file \vfile{\LogicClassical}{Classical} and
-\vfile{\LogicBerardi}{Berardi}). Proof-irrelevance is also a
-consequence of propositional extensionality (i.e. \coqtt{(A {\coqequiv} B)
-{\coqimp} A=B}, see the proof in file
-\vfile{\LogicClassicalFacts}{ClassicalFacts}).
-
-Proof-irrelevance directly implies Streicher's axiom $K$.
-
-\Question{What about functional extensionality?}
-
-Extensionality of functions is admittedly consistent with the
-Set-predicative Calculus of Inductive Constructions.
-
-%\begin{coq_example*}
-% Axiom extensionality : (A,B:Set)(f,g:(A->B))(x:A)(f x)=(g x)->f=g.
-%\end{coq_example*}
-
-Let {\tt A}, {\tt B} be types. To deal with extensionality on
-\verb=A->B= without relying on a general extensionality axiom,
-a possible approach is to define one's own extensional equality on
-\verb=A->B=.
-
-\begin{coq_eval}
-Variables A B : Set.
-\end{coq_eval}
-
-\begin{coq_example*}
-Definition ext_eq (f g: A->B) := forall x:A, f x = g x.
-\end{coq_example*}
-
-and to reason on \verb=A->B= as a setoid (see the Chapter on
-Setoids in the Reference Manual).
-
-\Question{Is {\Prop} impredicative?}
-
-Yes, the sort {\Prop} of propositions is {\em
-impredicative}. Otherwise said, a statement of the form $\forall
-A:Prop, P(A)$ can be instantiated by itself: if $\forall A:\Prop, P(A)$
-is provable, then $P(\forall A:\Prop, P(A))$ is.
-
-\Question{Is {\Set} impredicative?}
-
-No, the sort {\Set} lying at the bottom of the hierarchy of
-computational types is {\em predicative} in the basic {\Coq} system.
-This means that a family of types in {\Set}, e.g. $\forall A:\Set, A
-\rightarrow A$, is not a type in {\Set} and it cannot be applied on
-itself.
-
-However, the sort {\Set} was impredicative in the original versions of
-{\Coq}. For backward compatibility, or for experiments by
-knowledgeable users, the logic of {\Coq} can be set impredicative for
-{\Set} by calling {\Coq} with the option {\tt -impredicative-set}.
-
-{\Set} has been made predicative from version 8.0 of {\Coq}. The main
-reason is to interact smoothly with a classical mathematical world
-where both excluded-middle and the axiom of description are valid (see
-file \vfile{\LogicClassicalDescription}{ClassicalDescription} for a
-proof that excluded-middle and description implies the double negation
-of excluded-middle in {\Set} and file {\tt Hurkens\_Set.v} from the
-user contribution {\tt Rocq/PARADOXES} for a proof that
-impredicativity of {\Set} implies the simple negation of
-excluded-middle in {\Set}).
-
-\Question{Is {\Type} impredicative?}
-
-No, {\Type} is stratified. This is hidden for the
-user, but {\Coq} internally maintains a set of constraints ensuring
-stratification.
-
-If {\Type} were impredicative then it would be possible to encode
-Girard's systems $U-$ and $U$ in {\Coq} and it is known from Girard,
-Coquand, Hurkens and Miquel that systems $U-$ and $U$ are inconsistent
-[Girard 1972, Coquand 1991, Hurkens 1993, Miquel 2001]. This encoding
-can be found in file {\tt Logic/Hurkens.v} of {\Coq} standard library.
-
-For instance, when the user see {\tt $\forall$ X:Type, X->X : Type}, each
-occurrence of {\Type} is implicitly bound to a different level, say
-$\alpha$ and $\beta$ and the actual statement is {\tt
-forall X:Type($\alpha$), X->X : Type($\beta$)} with the constraint
-$\alpha<\beta$.
-
-When a statement violates a constraint, the message {\tt Universe
-inconsistency} appears. Example: {\tt fun (x:Type) (y:$\forall$ X:Type, X
-{\coqimp} X) => y x x}.
-
-\Question{I have two proofs of the same proposition. Can I prove they are equal?}
-
-In the base {\Coq} system, the answer is generally no. However, if
-classical logic is set, the answer is yes for propositions in {\Prop}.
-The answer is also yes if proof irrelevance holds (see question
-\ref{proof-irrelevance}).
-
-There are also ``simple enough'' propositions for which you can prove
-the equality without requiring any extra axioms. This is typically
-the case for propositions defined deterministically as a first-order
-inductive predicate on decidable sets. See for instance in question
-\ref{le-uniqueness} an axiom-free proof of the unicity of the proofs of
-the proposition {\tt le m n} (less or equal on {\tt nat}).
-
-% It is an ongoing work of research to natively include proof
-% irrelevance in {\Coq}.
-
-\Question{I have two proofs of an equality statement. Can I prove they are
-equal?}
-
- Yes, if equality is decidable on the domain considered (which
-is the case for {\tt nat}, {\tt bool}, etc): see {\Coq} file
-\verb=Eqdep_dec.v=). No otherwise, unless
-assuming Streicher's axiom $K$ (see \cite{HofStr98}) or a more general
-assumption such as proof-irrelevance (see \ref{proof-irrelevance}) or
-classical logic.
-
-All of these statements can be found in file \vfile{\LogicEqdep}{Eqdep}.
-
-\Question{Can I prove that the second components of equal dependent
-pairs are equal?}
-
- The answer is the same as for proofs of equality
-statements. It is provable if equality on the domain of the first
-component is decidable (look at \verb=inj_right_pair= from file
-\vfile{\LogicEqdepDec}{Eqdep\_dec}), but not provable in the general
-case. However, it is consistent (with the Calculus of Constructions)
-to assume it is true. The file \vfile{\LogicEqdep}{Eqdep} actually
-provides an axiom (equivalent to Streicher's axiom $K$) which entails
-the result (look at \verb=inj_pair2= in \vfile{\LogicEqdep}{Eqdep}).
-
-\subsection{Impredicativity}
-
-\Question{Why {\tt injection} does not work on impredicative {\tt Set}?}
-
- E.g. in this case (this occurs only in the {\tt Set}-impredicative
- variant of \Coq):
-
-\begin{coq_eval}
-Reset Initial.
-\end{coq_eval}
-
-\begin{coq_example*}
-Inductive I : Type :=
- intro : forall k:Set, k -> I.
-Lemma eq_jdef :
- forall x y:nat, intro _ x = intro _ y -> x = y.
-Proof.
- intros x y H; injection H.
-\end{coq_example*}
-
- Injectivity of constructors is restricted to predicative types. If
-injectivity on large inductive types were not restricted, we would be
-allowed to derive an inconsistency (e.g. following the lines of
-Burali-Forti paradox). The question remains open whether injectivity
-is consistent on some large inductive types not expressive enough to
-encode known paradoxes (such as type I above).
-
-
-\Question{What is a ``large inductive definition''?}
-
-An inductive definition in {\Prop} or {\Set} is called large
-if its constructors embed sets or propositions. As an example, here is
-a large inductive type:
-
-\begin{coq_example*}
-Inductive sigST (P:Set -> Set) : Type :=
- existST : forall X:Set, P X -> sigST P.
-\end{coq_example*}
-
-In the {\tt Set} impredicative variant of {\Coq}, large inductive
-definitions in {\tt Set} have restricted elimination schemes to
-prevent inconsistencies. Especially, projecting the set or the
-proposition content of a large inductive definition is forbidden. If
-it were allowed, it would be possible to encode e.g. Burali-Forti
-paradox \cite{Gir70,Coq85}.
-
-
-\Question{Is Coq's logic conservative over Coquand's Calculus of
-Constructions?}
-
-Yes for the non Set-impredicative version of the Calculus of Inductive
-Constructions. Indeed, the impredicative sort of the Calculus of
-Constructions can only be interpreted as the sort {\Prop} since {\Set}
-is predicative. But {\Prop} can be
-
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-\section{Talkin' with the Rooster}
-
-
-%%%%%%%
-\subsection{My goal is ..., how can I prove it?}
-
-
-\Question{My goal is a conjunction, how can I prove it?}
-
-Use some theorem or assumption or use the {\split} tactic.
-\begin{coq_example}
-Goal forall A B:Prop, A->B-> A/\B.
-intros.
-split.
-assumption.
-assumption.
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-\Question{My goal contains a conjunction as an hypothesis, how can I use it?}
-
-If you want to decompose your hypothesis into other hypothesis you can use the {\decompose} tactic:
-
-\begin{coq_example}
-Goal forall A B:Prop, A/\B-> B.
-intros.
-decompose [and] H.
-assumption.
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-
-\Question{My goal is a disjunction, how can I prove it?}
-
-You can prove the left part or the right part of the disjunction using
-{\left} or {\right} tactics. If you want to do a classical
-reasoning step, use the {\tt classic} axiom to prove the right part with the assumption
-that the left part of the disjunction is false.
-
-\begin{coq_example}
-Goal forall A B:Prop, A-> A\/B.
-intros.
-left.
-assumption.
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-An example using classical reasoning:
-
-\begin{coq_example}
-Require Import Classical.
-
-Ltac classical_right :=
-match goal with
-| _:_ |-?X1 \/ _ => (elim (classic X1);intro;[left;trivial|right])
-end.
-
-Ltac classical_left :=
-match goal with
-| _:_ |- _ \/?X1 => (elim (classic X1);intro;[right;trivial|left])
-end.
-
-
-Goal forall A B:Prop, (~A -> B) -> A\/B.
-intros.
-classical_right.
-auto.
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-\Question{My goal is an universally quantified statement, how can I prove it?}
-
-Use some theorem or assumption or introduce the quantified variable in
-the context using the {\intro} tactic. If there are several
-variables you can use the {\intros} tactic. A good habit is to
-provide names for these variables: {\Coq} will do it anyway, but such
-automatic naming decreases legibility and robustness.
-
-
-\Question{My goal is an existential, how can I prove it?}
-
-Use some theorem or assumption or exhibit the witness using the {\existstac} tactic.
-\begin{coq_example}
-Goal exists x:nat, forall y, x+y=y.
-exists 0.
-intros.
-auto.
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-
-\Question{My goal is solvable by some lemma, how can I prove it?}
-
-Just use the {\apply} tactic.
-
-\begin{coq_eval}
-Reset Initial.
-\end{coq_eval}
-
-\begin{coq_example}
-Lemma mylemma : forall x, x+0 = x.
-auto.
-Qed.
-
-Goal 3+0 = 3.
-apply mylemma.
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-
-
-\Question{My goal contains False as an hypothesis, how can I prove it?}
-
-You can use the {\contradiction} or {\intuition} tactics.
-
-
-\Question{My goal is an equality of two convertible terms, how can I prove it?}
-
-Just use the {\reflexivity} tactic.
-
-\begin{coq_example}
-Goal forall x, 0+x = x.
-intros.
-reflexivity.
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-\Question{My goal is a {\tt let x := a in ...}, how can I prove it?}
-
-Just use the {\intro} tactic.
-
-
-\Question{My goal is a {\tt let (a, ..., b) := c in}, how can I prove it?}
-
-Just use the {\destruct} c as (a,...,b) tactic.
-
-
-\Question{My goal contains some existential hypotheses, how can I use it?}
-
-You can use the tactic {\elim} with you hypotheses as an argument.
-
-\Question{My goal contains some existential hypotheses, how can I use it and decompose my knowledge about this new thing into different hypotheses?}
-
-\begin{verbatim}
-Ltac DecompEx H P := elim H;intro P;intro TO;decompose [and] TO;clear TO;clear H.
-\end{verbatim}
-
-
-\Question{My goal is an equality, how can I swap the left and right hand terms?}
-
-Just use the {\symmetry} tactic.
-\begin{coq_example}
-Goal forall x y : nat, x=y -> y=x.
-intros.
-symmetry.
-assumption.
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-\Question{My hypothesis is an equality, how can I swap the left and right hand terms?}
-
-Just use the {\symmetryin} tactic.
-
-\begin{coq_example}
-Goal forall x y : nat, x=y -> y=x.
-intros.
-symmetry in H.
-assumption.
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-
-\Question{My goal is an equality, how can I prove it by transitivity?}
-
-Just use the {\transitivity} tactic.
-\begin{coq_example}
-Goal forall x y z : nat, x=y -> y=z -> x=z.
-intros.
-transitivity y.
-assumption.
-assumption.
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-
-\Question{My goal would be solvable using {\tt apply;assumption} if it would not create meta-variables, how can I prove it?}
-
-You can use {\tt eapply yourtheorem;eauto} but it won't work in all cases ! (for example if more than one hypothesis match one of the subgoals generated by \eapply) so you should rather use {\tt try solve [eapply yourtheorem;eauto]}, otherwise some metavariables may be incorrectly instantiated.
-
-\begin{coq_example}
-Lemma trans : forall x y z : nat, x=y -> y=z -> x=z.
-intros.
-transitivity y;assumption.
-Qed.
-
-Goal forall x y z : nat, x=y -> y=z -> x=z.
-intros.
-eapply trans;eauto.
-Qed.
-
-Goal forall x y z t : nat, x=y -> x=t -> y=z -> x=z.
-intros.
-eapply trans;eauto.
-Undo.
-eapply trans.
-apply H.
-auto.
-Qed.
-
-Goal forall x y z t : nat, x=y -> x=t -> y=z -> x=z.
-intros.
-eapply trans;eauto.
-Undo.
-try solve [eapply trans;eauto].
-eapply trans.
-apply H.
-auto.
-Qed.
-
-\end{coq_example}
-
-\Question{My goal is solvable by some lemma within a set of lemmas and I don't want to remember which one, how can I prove it?}
-
-You can use a what is called a hints' base.
-
-\begin{coq_example}
-Require Import ZArith.
-Require Ring.
-Open Local Scope Z_scope.
-Lemma toto1 : 1+1 = 2.
-ring.
-Qed.
-Lemma toto2 : 2+2 = 4.
-ring.
-Qed.
-Lemma toto3 : 2+1 = 3.
-ring.
-Qed.
-
-Hint Resolve toto1 toto2 toto3 : mybase.
-
-Goal 2+(1+1)=4.
-auto with mybase.
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-
-\Question{My goal is one of the hypotheses, how can I prove it?}
-
-Use the {\assumption} tactic.
-
-\begin{coq_example}
-Goal 1=1 -> 1=1.
-intro.
-assumption.
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-
-\Question{My goal appears twice in the hypotheses and I want to choose which one is used, how can I do it?}
-
-Use the {\exact} tactic.
-\begin{coq_example}
-Goal 1=1 -> 1=1 -> 1=1.
-intros.
-exact H0.
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-\Question{What can be the difference between applying one hypothesis or another in the context of the last question?}
-
-From a proof point of view it is equivalent but if you want to extract
-a program from your proof, the two hypotheses can lead to different
-programs.
-
-
-\Question{My goal is a propositional tautology, how can I prove it?}
-
-Just use the {\tauto} tactic.
-\begin{coq_example}
-Goal forall A B:Prop, A-> (A\/B) /\ A.
-intros.
-tauto.
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-\Question{My goal is a first order formula, how can I prove it?}
-
-Just use the semi-decision tactic: \firstorder.
-
-\iffalse
-todo: demander un exemple ŕ Pierre
-\fi
-
-\Question{My goal is solvable by a sequence of rewrites, how can I prove it?}
-
-Just use the {\congruence} tactic.
-\begin{coq_example}
-Goal forall a b c d e, a=d -> b=e -> c+b=d -> c+e=a.
-intros.
-congruence.
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-
-\Question{My goal is a disequality solvable by a sequence of rewrites, how can I prove it?}
-
-Just use the {\congruence} tactic.
-
-\begin{coq_example}
-Goal forall a b c d, a<>d -> b=a -> d=c+b -> b<>c+b.
-intros.
-congruence.
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-
-\Question{My goal is an equality on some ring (e.g. natural numbers), how can I prove it?}
-
-Just use the {\ring} tactic.
-
-\begin{coq_example}
-Require Import ZArith.
-Require Ring.
-Open Local Scope Z_scope.
-Goal forall a b : Z, (a+b)*(a+b) = a*a + 2*a*b + b*b.
-intros.
-ring.
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-\Question{My goal is an equality on some field (e.g. real numbers), how can I prove it?}
-
-Just use the {\field} tactic.
-
-\begin{coq_example}
-Require Import Reals.
-Require Ring.
-Open Local Scope R_scope.
-Goal forall a b : R, b*a<>0 -> (a/b) * (b/a) = 1.
-intros.
-field.
-cut (b*a <>0 -> a<>0).
-cut (b*a <>0 -> b<>0).
-auto.
-auto with real.
-auto with real.
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-
-\Question{My goal is an inequality on integers in Presburger's arithmetic (an expression build from +,-,constants and variables), how can I prove it?}
-
-
-\begin{coq_example}
-Require Import ZArith.
-Require Omega.
-Open Local Scope Z_scope.
-Goal forall a : Z, a>0 -> a+a > a.
-intros.
-omega.
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-
-\Question{My goal is an equation solvable using equational hypothesis on some ring (e.g. natural numbers), how can I prove it?}
-
-You need the {\gb} tactic (see Loďc Pottier's homepage).
-
-\subsection{Tactics usage}
-
-\Question{I want to state a fact that I will use later as an hypothesis, how can I do it?}
-
-If you want to use forward reasoning (first proving the fact and then
-using it) you just need to use the {\assert} tactic. If you want to use
-backward reasoning (proving your goal using an assumption and then
-proving the assumption) use the {\cut} tactic.
-
-\begin{coq_example}
-Goal forall A B C D : Prop, (A -> B) -> (B->C) -> A -> C.
-intros.
-assert (A->C).
-intro;apply H0;apply H;assumption.
-apply H2.
-assumption.
-Qed.
-
-Goal forall A B C D : Prop, (A -> B) -> (B->C) -> A -> C.
-intros.
-cut (A->C).
-intro.
-apply H2;assumption.
-intro;apply H0;apply H;assumption.
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-
-
-
-\Question{I want to state a fact that I will use later as an hypothesis and prove it later, how can I do it?}
-
-You can use {\cut} followed by {\intro} or you can use the following {\Ltac} command:
-\begin{verbatim}
-Ltac assert_later t := cut t;[intro|idtac].
-\end{verbatim}
-
-\Question{What is the difference between {\Qed} and {\Defined}?}
-
-These two commands perform type checking, but when {\Defined} is used the new definition is set as transparent, otherwise it is defined as opaque (see \ref{opaque}).
-
-
-\Question{How can I know what a tactic does?}
-
-You can use the {\tt info} command.
-
-
-
-\Question{Why {\auto} does not work? How can I fix it?}
-
-You can increase the depth of the proof search or add some lemmas in the base of hints.
-Perhaps you may need to use \eauto.
-
-\Question{What is {\eauto}?}
-
-This is the same tactic as \auto, but it relies on {\eapply} instead of \apply.
-
-\Question{How can I speed up {\auto}?}
-
-You can use \texttt{info }{\auto} to replace {\auto} by the tactics it generates.
-You can split your hint bases into smaller ones.
-
-
-\Question{What is the equivalent of {\tauto} for classical logic?}
-
-Currently there are no equivalent tactic for classical logic. You can use Gödel's ``not not'' translation.
-
-
-\Question{I want to replace some term with another in the goal, how can I do it?}
-
-If one of your hypothesis (say {\tt H}) states that the terms are equal you can use the {\rewrite} tactic. Otherwise you can use the {\replace} {\tt with} tactic.
-
-\Question{I want to replace some term with another in an hypothesis, how can I do it?}
-
-You can use the {\rewrite} {\tt in} tactic.
-
-\Question{I want to replace some symbol with its definition, how can I do it?}
-
-You can use the {\unfold} tactic.
-
-\Question{How can I reduce some term?}
-
-You can use the {\simpl} tactic.
-
-\Question{How can I declare a shortcut for some term?}
-
-You can use the {\set} or {\pose} tactics.
-
-\Question{How can I perform case analysis?}
-
-You can use the {\case} or {\destruct} tactics.
-
-\Question{How can I prevent the case tactic from losing information ?}
-
-You may want to use the (now standard) {\tt case\_eq} tactic. See the Coq'Art page 159.
-
-\Question{Why should I name my intros?}
-
-When you use the {\intro} tactic you don't have to give a name to your
-hypothesis. If you do so the name will be generated by {\Coq} but your
-scripts may be less robust. If you add some hypothesis to your theorem
-(or change their order), you will have to change your proof to adapt
-to the new names.
-
-\Question{How can I automatize the naming?}
-
-You can use the {\tt Show Intro.} or {\tt Show Intros.} commands to generate the names and use your editor to generate a fully named {\intro} tactic.
-This can be automatized within {\tt xemacs}.
-
-\begin{coq_example}
-Goal forall A B C : Prop, A -> B -> C -> A/\B/\C.
-Show Intros.
-(*
-A B C H H0
-H1
-*)
-intros A B C H H0 H1.
-repeat split;assumption.
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-\Question{I want to automatize the use of some tactic, how can I do it?}
-
-You need to use the {\tt proof with T} command and add {\ldots} at the
-end of your sentences.
-
-For instance:
-\begin{coq_example}
-Goal forall A B C : Prop, A -> B/\C -> A/\B/\C.
-Proof with assumption.
-intros.
-split...
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-\Question{I want to execute the {\texttt proof with} tactic only if it solves the goal, how can I do it?}
-
-You need to use the {\try} and {\solve} tactics. For instance:
-\begin{coq_example}
-Require Import ZArith.
-Require Ring.
-Open Local Scope Z_scope.
-Goal forall a b c : Z, a+b=b+a.
-Proof with try solve [ring].
-intros...
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-\Question{How can I do the opposite of the {\intro} tactic?}
-
-You can use the {\generalize} tactic.
-
-\begin{coq_example}
-Goal forall A B : Prop, A->B-> A/\B.
-intros.
-generalize H.
-intro.
-auto.
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-\Question{One of the hypothesis is an equality between a variable and some term, I want to get rid of this variable, how can I do it?}
-
-You can use the {\subst} tactic. This will rewrite the equality everywhere and clear the assumption.
-
-\Question{What can I do if I get ``{\tt generated subgoal term has metavariables in it }''?}
-
-You should use the {\eapply} tactic, this will generate some goals containing metavariables.
-
-\Question{How can I instantiate some metavariable?}
-
-Just use the {\instantiate} tactic.
-
-
-\Question{What is the use of the {\pattern} tactic?}
-
-The {\pattern} tactic transforms the current goal, performing
-beta-expansion on all the applications featuring this tactic's
-argument. For instance, if the current goal includes a subterm {\tt
-phi(t)}, then {\tt pattern t} transforms the subterm into {\tt (fun
-x:A => phi(x)) t}. This can be useful when {\apply} fails on matching,
-to abstract the appropriate terms.
-
-\Question{What is the difference between assert, cut and generalize?}
-
-PS: Notice for people that are interested in proof rendering that \assert
-and {\pose} (and \cut) are not rendered the same as {\generalize} (see the
-HELM experimental rendering tool at \ahref{http://helm.cs.unibo.it/library.html}{\url{http://helm.cs.unibo.it}}, link
-HELM, link COQ Online). Indeed {\generalize} builds a beta-expanded term
-while \assert, {\pose} and {\cut} uses a let-in.
-
-\begin{verbatim}
- (* Goal is T *)
- generalize (H1 H2).
- (* Goal is A->T *)
- ... a proof of A->T ...
-\end{verbatim}
-
-is rendered into something like
-\begin{verbatim}
- (h) ... the proof of A->T ...
- we proved A->T
- (h0) by (H1 H2) we proved A
- by (h h0) we proved T
-\end{verbatim}
-while
-\begin{verbatim}
- (* Goal is T *)
- assert q := (H1 H2).
- (* Goal is A *)
- ... a proof of A ...
- (* Goal is A |- T *)
- ... a proof of T ...
-\end{verbatim}
-is rendered into something like
-\begin{verbatim}
- (q) ... the proof of A ...
- we proved A
- ... the proof of T ...
- we proved T
-\end{verbatim}
-Otherwise said, {\generalize} is not rendered in a forward-reasoning way,
-while {\assert} is.
-
-\Question{What can I do if \Coq can not infer some implicit argument ?}
-
-You can state explicitely what this implicit argument is. See \ref{implicit}.
-
-\Question{How can I explicit some implicit argument ?}\label{implicit}
-
-Just use \texttt{A:=term} where \texttt{A} is the argument.
-
-For instance if you want to use the existence of ``nil'' on nat*nat lists:
-\begin{verbatim}
-exists (nil (A:=(nat*nat))).
-\end{verbatim}
-
-\iffalse
-\Question{Is there anyway to do pattern matching with dependent types?}
-
-todo
-\fi
-
-\subsection{Proof management}
-
-
-\Question{How can I change the order of the subgoals?}
-
-You can use the {\Focus} command to concentrate on some goal. When the goal is proved you will see the remaining goals.
-
-\Question{How can I change the order of the hypothesis?}
-
-You can use the {\tt Move ... after} command.
-
-\Question{How can I change the name of an hypothesis?}
-
-You can use the {\tt Rename ... into} command.
-
-\Question{How can I delete some hypothesis?}
-
-You can use the {\tt Clear} command.
-
-\Question{How can use a proof which is not finished?}
-
-You can use the {\tt Admitted} command to state your current proof as an axiom.
-You can use the {\tt admit} tactic to omit a portion of a proof.
-
-\Question{How can I state a conjecture?}
-
-You can use the {\tt Admitted} command to state your current proof as an axiom.
-
-\Question{What is the difference between a lemma, a fact and a theorem?}
-
-From {\Coq} point of view there are no difference. But some tools can
-have a different behavior when you use a lemma rather than a
-theorem. For instance {\tt coqdoc} will not generate documentation for
-the lemmas within your development.
-
-\Question{How can I organize my proofs?}
-
-You can organize your proofs using the section mechanism of \Coq. Have
-a look at the manual for further information.
-
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-\section{Inductive and Co-inductive types}
-
-\subsection{General}
-
-\Question{How can I prove that two constructors are different?}
-
-You can use the {\discriminate} tactic.
-
-\begin{coq_example}
-Inductive toto : Set := | C1 : toto | C2 : toto.
-Goal C1 <> C2.
-discriminate.
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-\Question{During an inductive proof, how to get rid of impossible cases of an inductive definition?}
-
-Use the {\inversion} tactic.
-
-
-\Question{How can I prove that 2 terms in an inductive set are equal? Or different?}
-
-Have a look at \coqtt{decide equality} and \coqtt{discriminate} in the \ahref{http://coq.inria.fr/doc/main.html}{Reference Manual}.
-
-\Question{Why is the proof of \coqtt{0+n=n} on natural numbers
-trivial but the proof of \coqtt{n+0=n} is not?}
-
- Since \coqtt{+} (\coqtt{plus}) on natural numbers is defined by analysis on its first argument
-
-\begin{coq_example}
-Print plus.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-{\noindent} The expression \coqtt{0+n} evaluates to \coqtt{n}. As {\Coq} reasons
-modulo evaluation of expressions, \coqtt{0+n} and \coqtt{n} are
-considered equal and the theorem \coqtt{0+n=n} is an instance of the
-reflexivity of equality. On the other side, \coqtt{n+0} does not
-evaluate to \coqtt{n} and a proof by induction on \coqtt{n} is
-necessary to trigger the evaluation of \coqtt{+}.
-
-\Question{Why is dependent elimination in Prop not
-available by default?}
-
-
-This is just because most of the time it is not needed. To derive a
-dependent elimination principle in {\tt Prop}, use the command {\tt Scheme} and
-apply the elimination scheme using the \verb=using= option of
-\verb=elim=, \verb=destruct= or \verb=induction=.
-
-
-\Question{Argh! I cannot write expressions like ``~{\tt if n <= p then p else n}~'', as in any programming language}
-\label{minmax}
-
-The short answer : You should use {\texttt le\_lt\_dec n p} instead.\\
-
-That's right, you can't.
-If you type for instance the following ``definition'':
-\begin{coq_eval}
-Reset Initial.
-\end{coq_eval}
-\begin{coq_example}
-Definition max (n p : nat) := if n <= p then p else n.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-As \Coq~ says, the term ``~\texttt{n <= p}~'' is a proposition, i.e. a
-statement that belongs to the mathematical world. There are many ways to
-prove such a proposition, either by some computation, or using some already
-proven theoremas. For instance, proving $3-2 \leq 2^{45503}$ is very easy,
-using some theorems on arithmetical operations. If you compute both numbers
-before comparing them, you risk to use a lot of time and space.
-
-
-On the contrary, a function for computing the greatest of two natural numbers
-is an algorithm which, called on two natural numbers
-$n$ and $p$, determines wether $n\leq p$ or $p < n$.
-Such a function is a \emph{decision procedure} for the inequality of
- \texttt{nat}. The possibility of writing such a procedure comes
-directly from de decidability of the order $\leq$ on natural numbers.
-
-
-When you write a piece of code like
-``~\texttt{if n <= p then \dots{} else \dots}~''
-in a
-programming language like \emph{ML} or \emph{Java}, a call to such a
-decision procedure is generated. The decision procedure is in general
-a primitive function, written in a low-level language, in the correctness
-of which you have to trust.
-
-The standard Library of the system \emph{Coq} contains a
-(constructive) proof of decidability of the order $\leq$ on
-\texttt{nat} : the function \texttt{le\_lt\_dec} of
-the module \texttt{Compare\_dec} of library \texttt{Arith}.
-
-The following code shows how to define correctly \texttt{min} and
-\texttt{max}, and prove some properties of these functions.
-
-\begin{coq_example}
-Require Import Compare_dec.
-
-Definition max (n p : nat) := if le_lt_dec n p then p else n.
-
-Definition min (n p : nat) := if le_lt_dec n p then n else p.
-
-Eval compute in (min 4 7).
-
-Theorem min_plus_max : forall n p, min n p + max n p = n + p.
-Proof.
- intros n p;
- unfold min, max;
- case (le_lt_dec n p);
- simpl; auto with arith.
-Qed.
-
-Theorem max_equiv : forall n p, max n p = p <-> n <= p.
-Proof.
- unfold max; intros n p; case (le_lt_dec n p);simpl; auto.
- intuition auto with arith.
- split.
- intro e; rewrite e; auto with arith.
- intro H; absurd (p < p); eauto with arith.
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-\Question{I wrote my own decision procedure for $\leq$, which
-is much faster than yours, but proving such theorems as
- \texttt{max\_equiv} seems to be quite difficult}
-
-Your code is probably the following one:
-
-\begin{coq_example}
-Fixpoint my_le_lt_dec (n p :nat) {struct n}: bool :=
- match n, p with 0, _ => true
- | S n', S p' => my_le_lt_dec n' p'
- | _ , _ => false
- end.
-
-Definition my_max (n p:nat) := if my_le_lt_dec n p then p else n.
-
-Definition my_min (n p:nat) := if my_le_lt_dec n p then n else p.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-
-For instance, the computation of \texttt{my\_max 567 321} is almost
-immediate, whereas one can't wait for the result of
-\texttt{max 56 32}, using \emph{Coq's} \texttt{le\_lt\_dec}.
-
-This is normal. Your definition is a simple recursive function which
-returns a boolean value. Coq's \texttt{le\_lt\_dec} is a \emph{certified
-function}, i.e. a complex object, able not only to tell wether $n\leq p$
-or $p<n$, but also of building a complete proof of the correct inequality.
-What make \texttt{le\_lt\_dec} inefficient for computing \texttt{min}
-and \texttt{max} is the building of a huge proof term.
-
-Nevertheless, \texttt{le\_lt\_dec} is very useful. Its type
-is a strong specification, using the
-\texttt{sumbool} type (look at the reference manual or chapter 9 of
-\cite{coqart}). Eliminations of the form
-``~\texttt{case (le\_lt\_dec n p)}~'' provide proofs of
-either $n \leq p$ or $p < n$, allowing to prove easily theorems as in
-question~\ref{minmax}. Unfortunately, this not the case of your
-\texttt{my\_le\_lt\_dec}, which returns a quite non-informative boolean
-value.
-
-
-\begin{coq_example}
-Check le_lt_dec.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-You should keep in mind that \texttt{le\_lt\_dec} is useful to build
-certified programs which need to compare natural numbers, and is not
-designed to compare quickly two numbers.
-
-Nevertheless, the \emph{extraction} of \texttt{le\_lt\_dec} towards
-\emph{Ocaml} or \emph{Haskell}, is a reasonable program for comparing two
-natural numbers in Peano form in linear time.
-
-It is also possible to keep your boolean function as a decision procedure,
-but you have to establish yourself the relationship between \texttt{my\_le\_lt\_dec} and the propositions $n\leq p$ and $p<n$:
-
-\begin{coq_example*}
-Theorem my_le_lt_dec_true :
- forall n p, my_le_lt_dec n p = true <-> n <= p.
-
-Theorem my_le_lt_dec_false :
- forall n p, my_le_lt_dec n p = false <-> p < n.
-\end{coq_example*}
-
-
-\subsection{Recursion}
-
-\Question{Why can't I define a non terminating program?}
-
- Because otherwise the decidability of the type-checking
-algorithm (which involves evaluation of programs) is not ensured. On
-another side, if non terminating proofs were allowed, we could get a
-proof of {\tt False}:
-
-\begin{coq_example*}
-(* This is fortunately not allowed! *)
-Fixpoint InfiniteProof (n:nat) : False := InfiniteProof n.
-Theorem Paradox : False.
-Proof (InfiniteProof O).
-\end{coq_example*}
-
-
-\Question{Why only structurally well-founded loops are allowed?}
-
- The structural order on inductive types is a simple and
-powerful notion of termination. The consistency of the Calculus of
-Inductive Constructions relies on it and another consistency proof
-would have to be made for stronger termination arguments (such
-as the termination of the evaluation of CIC programs themselves!).
-
-In spite of this, all non-pathological termination orders can be mapped
-to a structural order. Tools to do this are provided in the file
-\vfile{\InitWf}{Wf} of the standard library of {\Coq}.
-
-\Question{How to define loops based on non structurally smaller
-recursive calls?}
-
- The procedure is as follows (we consider the definition of {\tt
-mergesort} as an example).
-
-\begin{itemize}
-
-\item Define the termination order, say {\tt R} on the type {\tt A} of
-the arguments of the loop.
-
-\begin{coq_eval}
-Open Scope R_scope.
-Require Import List.
-\end{coq_eval}
-
-\begin{coq_example*}
-Definition R (a b:list nat) := length a < length b.
-\end{coq_example*}
-
-\item Prove that this order is well-founded (in fact that all elements in {\tt A} are accessible along {\tt R}).
-
-\begin{coq_example*}
-Lemma Rwf : well_founded R.
-\end{coq_example*}
-
-\item Define the step function (which needs proofs that recursive
-calls are on smaller arguments).
-
-\begin{coq_example*}
-Definition split (l : list nat)
- : {l1: list nat | R l1 l} * {l2 : list nat | R l2 l}
- := (* ... *) .
-Definition concat (l1 l2 : list nat) : list nat := (* ... *) .
-Definition merge_step (l : list nat) (f: forall l':list nat, R l' l -> list nat) :=
- let (lH1,lH2) := (split l) in
- let (l1,H1) := lH1 in
- let (l2,H2) := lH2 in
- concat (f l1 H1) (f l2 H2).
-\end{coq_example*}
-
-\item Define the recursive function by fixpoint on the step function.
-
-\begin{coq_example*}
-Definition merge := Fix Rwf (fun _ => list nat) merge_step.
-\end{coq_example*}
-
-\end{itemize}
-
-\Question{What is behind the accessibility and well-foundedness proofs?}
-
- Well-foundedness of some relation {\tt R} on some type {\tt A}
-is defined as the accessibility of all elements of {\tt A} along {\tt R}.
-
-\begin{coq_example}
-Print well_founded.
-Print Acc.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-The structure of the accessibility predicate is a well-founded tree
-branching at each node {\tt x} in {\tt A} along all the nodes {\tt x'}
-less than {\tt x} along {\tt R}. Any sequence of elements of {\tt A}
-decreasing along the order {\tt R} are branches in the accessibility
-tree. Hence any decreasing along {\tt R} is mapped into a structural
-decreasing in the accessibility tree of {\tt R}. This is emphasised in
-the definition of {\tt fix} which recurs not on its argument {\tt x:A}
-but on the accessibility of this argument along {\tt R}.
-
-See file \vfile{\InitWf}{Wf}.
-
-\Question{How to perform simultaneous double induction?}
-
- In general a (simultaneous) double induction is simply solved by an
-induction on the first hypothesis followed by an inversion over the
-second hypothesis. Here is an example
-
-\begin{coq_eval}
-Reset Initial.
-\end{coq_eval}
-
-\begin{coq_example}
-Inductive even : nat -> Prop :=
- | even_O : even 0
- | even_S : forall n:nat, even n -> even (S (S n)).
-
-Inductive odd : nat -> Prop :=
- | odd_SO : odd 1
- | odd_S : forall n:nat, odd n -> odd (S (S n)).
-
-Lemma not_even_and_odd : forall n:nat, even n -> odd n -> False.
-induction 1.
- inversion 1.
- inversion 1. apply IHeven; trivial.
-\end{coq_example}
-\begin{coq_eval}
-Qed.
-\end{coq_eval}
-
-In case the type of the second induction hypothesis is not
-dependent, {\tt inversion} can just be replaced by {\tt destruct}.
-
-\Question{How to define a function by simultaneous double recursion?}
-
- The same trick applies, you can even use the pattern-matching
-compilation algorithm to do the work for you. Here is an example:
-
-\begin{coq_example}
-Fixpoint minus (n m:nat) {struct n} : nat :=
- match n, m with
- | O, _ => 0
- | S k, O => S k
- | S k, S l => minus k l
- end.
-Print minus.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-In case of dependencies in the type of the induction objects
-$t_1$ and $t_2$, an extra argument stating $t_1=t_2$ must be given to
-the fixpoint definition
-
-\Question{How to perform nested and double induction?}
-
- To reason by nested (i.e. lexicographic) induction, just reason by
-induction on the successive components.
-
-\smallskip
-
-Double induction (or induction on pairs) is a restriction of the
-lexicographic induction. Here is an example of double induction.
-
-\begin{coq_example}
-Lemma nat_double_ind :
-forall P : nat -> nat -> Prop, P 0 0 ->
- (forall m n, P m n -> P m (S n)) ->
- (forall m n, P m n -> P (S m) n) ->
- forall m n, P m n.
-intros P H00 HmS HSn; induction m.
-(* case 0 *)
-induction n; [assumption | apply HmS; apply IHn].
-(* case Sm *)
-intro n; apply HSn; apply IHm.
-\end{coq_example}
-\begin{coq_eval}
-Qed.
-\end{coq_eval}
-
-\Question{How to define a function by nested recursion?}
-
- The same trick applies. Here is the example of Ackermann
-function.
-
-\begin{coq_example}
-Fixpoint ack (n:nat) : nat -> nat :=
- match n with
- | O => S
- | S n' =>
- (fix ack' (m:nat) : nat :=
- match m with
- | O => ack n' 1
- | S m' => ack n' (ack' m')
- end)
- end.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-
-\subsection{Co-inductive types}
-
-\Question{I have a cofixpoint $t:=F(t)$ and I want to prove $t=F(t)$. How to do it?}
-
-Just case-expand $F({\tt t})$ then complete by a trivial case analysis.
-Here is what it gives on e.g. the type of streams on naturals
-
-\begin{coq_eval}
-Set Implicit Arguments.
-\end{coq_eval}
-\begin{coq_example}
-CoInductive Stream (A:Set) : Set :=
- Cons : A -> Stream A -> Stream A.
-CoFixpoint nats (n:nat) : Stream nat := Cons n (nats (S n)).
-Lemma Stream_unfold :
- forall n:nat, nats n = Cons n (nats (S n)).
-Proof.
- intro;
- change (nats n = match nats n with
- | Cons x s => Cons x s
- end).
- case (nats n); reflexivity.
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-
-
-\section{Syntax and notations}
-
-\Question{I do not want to type ``forall'' because it is too long, what can I do?}
-
-You can define your own notation for forall:
-\begin{verbatim}
-Notation "fa x : t, P" := (forall x:t, P) (at level 200, x ident).
-\end{verbatim}
-or if your are using {\CoqIde} you can define a pretty symbol for for all and an input method (see \ref{forallcoqide}).
-
-
-
-\Question{How can I define a notation for square?}
-
-You can use for instance:
-\begin{verbatim}
-Notation "x ^2" := (Rmult x x) (at level 20).
-\end{verbatim}
-Note that you can not use:
-\begin{tt}
-Notation "x $^˛$" := (Rmult x x) (at level 20).
-\end{tt}
-because ``$^2$'' is an iso-latin character. If you really want this kind of notation you should use UTF-8.
-
-
-\Question{Why ``no associativity'' and ``left associativity'' at the same level does not work?}
-
-Because we relie on camlp4 for syntactical analysis and camlp4 does not really implement no associativity. By default, non associative operators are defined as right associative.
-
-
-
-\Question{How can I know the associativity associated with a level?}
-
-You can do ``Print Grammar constr'', and decode the output from camlp4, good luck !
-
-\section{Modules}
-
-
-
-
-%%%%%%%
-\section{\Ltac}
-
-\Question{What is {\Ltac}?}
-
-{\Ltac} is the tactic language for \Coq. It provides the user with a
-high-level ``toolbox'' for tactic creation.
-
-\Question{Is there any printing command in {\Ltac}?}
-
-You can use the {\idtac} tactic with a string argument. This string
-will be printed out. The same applies to the {\fail} tactic
-
-\Question{What is the syntax for let in {\Ltac}?}
-
-If $x_i$ are identifiers and $e_i$ and $expr$ are tactic expressions, then let reads:
-\begin{center}
-{\tt let $x_1$:=$e_1$ with $x_2$:=$e_2$\ldots with $x_n$:=$e_n$ in
-$expr$}.
-\end{center}
-Beware that if $expr$ is complex (i.e. features at least a sequence) parenthesis
-should be added around it. For example:
-\begin{coq_example}
-Ltac twoIntro := let x:=intro in (x;x).
-\end{coq_example}
-
-\Question{What is the syntax for pattern matching in {\Ltac}?}
-
-Pattern matching on a term $expr$ (non-linear first order unification)
-with patterns $p_i$ and tactic expressions $e_i$ reads:
-\begin{center}
-\hspace{10ex}
-{\tt match $expr$ with
-\hspace*{2ex}$p_1$ => $e_1$
-\hspace*{1ex}\textbar$p_2$ => $e_2$
-\hspace*{1ex}\ldots
-\hspace*{1ex}\textbar$p_n$ => $e_n$
-\hspace*{1ex}\textbar\ \textunderscore\ => $e_{n+1}$
-end.
-}
-\end{center}
-Underscore matches all terms.
-
-\Question{What is the semantics for ``match goal''?}
-
-The semantics of {\tt match goal} depends on whether it returns
-tactics or not. The {\tt match goal} expression matches the current
-goal against a series of patterns: {$hyp_1 {\ldots} hyp_n$ \textbar-
-$ccl$}. It uses a first-order unification algorithm and in case of
-success, if the right-hand-side is an expression, it tries to type it
-while if the right-hand-side is a tactic, it tries to apply it. If the
-typing or the tactic application fails, the {\tt match goal} tries all
-the possible combinations of $hyp_i$ before dropping the branch and
-moving to the next one. Underscore matches all terms.
-
-\Question{Why can't I use a ``match goal'' returning a tactic in a non
-tail-recursive position?}
-
-This is precisely because the semantics of {\tt match goal} is to
-apply the tactic on the right as soon as a pattern unifies what is
-meaningful only in tail-recursive uses.
-
-The semantics in non tail-recursive call could have been the one used
-for terms (i.e. fail if the tactic expression is not typable, but
-don't try to apply it). For uniformity of semantics though, this has
-been rejected.
-
-\Question{How can I generate a new name?}
-
-You can use the following syntax:
-{\tt let id:=fresh in \ldots}\\
-For example:
-\begin{coq_example}
-Ltac introIdGen := let id:=fresh in intro id.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-
-\iffalse
-\Question{How can I access the type of a term?}
-
-You can use typeof.
-todo
-\fi
-
-\iffalse
-\Question{How can I define static and dynamic code?}
-\fi
-
-\section{Tactics written in Ocaml}
-
-\Question{Can you show me an example of a tactic written in OCaml?}
-
-You have some examples of tactics written in Ocaml in the ``plugins'' directory of {\Coq} sources.
-
-
-
-
-\section{Case studies}
-
-\iffalse
-\Question{How can I define vectors or lists of size n?}
-\fi
-
-
-\Question{How to prove that 2 sets are different?}
-
- You need to find a property true on one set and false on the
-other one. As an example we show how to prove that {\tt bool} and {\tt
-nat} are discriminable. As discrimination property we take the
-property to have no more than 2 elements.
-
-\begin{coq_example*}
-Theorem nat_bool_discr : bool <> nat.
-Proof.
- pose (discr :=
- fun X:Set =>
- ~ (forall a b:X, ~ (forall x:X, x <> a -> x <> b -> False))).
- intro Heq; assert (H: discr bool).
- intro H; apply (H true false); destruct x; auto.
- rewrite Heq in H; apply H; clear H.
- destruct a; destruct b as [|n]; intro H0; eauto.
- destruct n; [ apply (H0 2); discriminate | eauto ].
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example*}
-
-\Question{Is there an axiom-free proof of Streicher's axiom $K$ for
-the equality on {\tt nat}?}
-\label{K-nat}
-
-Yes, because equality is decidable on {\tt nat}. Here is the proof.
-
-\begin{coq_example*}
-Require Import Eqdep_dec.
-Require Import Peano_dec.
-Theorem K_nat :
- forall (x:nat) (P:x = x -> Prop), P (refl_equal x) -> forall p:x = x, P p.
-Proof.
-intros; apply K_dec_set with (p := p).
-apply eq_nat_dec.
-assumption.
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example*}
-
-Similarly, we have
-
-\begin{coq_example*}
-Theorem eq_rect_eq_nat :
- forall (p:nat) (Q:nat->Type) (x:Q p) (h:p=p), x = eq_rect p Q x p h.
-Proof.
-intros; apply K_nat with (p := h); reflexivity.
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example*}
-
-\Question{How to prove that two proofs of {\tt n<=m} on {\tt nat} are equal?}
-\label{le-uniqueness}
-
-This is provable without requiring any axiom because axiom $K$
-directly holds on {\tt nat}. Here is a proof using question \ref{K-nat}.
-
-\begin{coq_example*}
-Require Import Arith.
-Scheme le_ind' := Induction for le Sort Prop.
-Theorem le_uniqueness_proof : forall (n m : nat) (p q : n <= m), p = q.
-Proof.
-induction p using le_ind'; intro q.
- replace (le_n n) with
- (eq_rect _ (fun n0 => n <= n0) (le_n n) _ (refl_equal n)).
- 2:reflexivity.
- generalize (refl_equal n).
- pattern n at 2 4 6 10, q; case q; [intro | intros m l e].
- rewrite <- eq_rect_eq_nat; trivial.
- contradiction (le_Sn_n m); rewrite <- e; assumption.
- replace (le_S n m p) with
- (eq_rect _ (fun n0 => n <= n0) (le_S n m p) _ (refl_equal (S m))).
- 2:reflexivity.
- generalize (refl_equal (S m)).
- pattern (S m) at 1 3 4 6, q; case q; [intro Heq | intros m0 l HeqS].
- contradiction (le_Sn_n m); rewrite Heq; assumption.
- injection HeqS; intro Heq; generalize l HeqS.
- rewrite <- Heq; intros; rewrite <- eq_rect_eq_nat.
- rewrite (IHp l0); reflexivity.
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example*}
-
-\Question{How to exploit equalities on sets}
-
-To extract information from an equality on sets, you need to
-find a predicate of sets satisfied by the elements of the sets. As an
-example, let's consider the following theorem.
-
-\begin{coq_example*}
-Theorem interval_discr :
- forall m n:nat,
- {x : nat | x <= m} = {x : nat | x <= n} -> m = n.
-\end{coq_example*}
-
-We have a proof requiring the axiom of proof-irrelevance. We
-conjecture that proof-irrelevance can be circumvented by introducing a
-primitive definition of discrimination of the proofs of
-\verb!{x : nat | x <= m}!.
-
-\begin{latexonly}%
-The proof can be found in file {\tt interval$\_$discr.v} in this directory.
-%Here is the proof
-%\begin{small}
-%\begin{flushleft}
-%\begin{texttt}
-%\def_{\ifmmode\sb\else\subscr\fi}
-%\include{interval_discr.v}
-%%% WARNING semantics of \_ has changed !
-%\end{texttt}
-%$a\_b\_c$
-%\end{flushleft}
-%\end{small}
-\end{latexonly}%
-\begin{htmlonly}%
-\ahref{./interval_discr.v}{Here} is the proof.
-\end{htmlonly}
-
-\Question{I have a problem of dependent elimination on
-proofs, how to solve it?}
-
-\begin{coq_eval}
-Reset Initial.
-\end{coq_eval}
-
-\begin{coq_example*}
-Inductive Def1 : Set := c1 : Def1.
-Inductive DefProp : Def1 -> Prop :=
- c2 : forall d:Def1, DefProp d.
-Inductive Comb : Set :=
- c3 : forall d:Def1, DefProp d -> Comb.
-Lemma eq_comb :
- forall (d1 d1':Def1) (d2:DefProp d1) (d2':DefProp d1'),
- d1 = d1' -> c3 d1 d2 = c3 d1' d2'.
-\end{coq_example*}
-
- You need to derive the dependent elimination
-scheme for DefProp by hand using {\coqtt Scheme}.
-
-\begin{coq_eval}
-Abort.
-\end{coq_eval}
-
-\begin{coq_example*}
-Scheme DefProp_elim := Induction for DefProp Sort Prop.
-Lemma eq_comb :
- forall d1 d1':Def1,
- d1 = d1' ->
- forall (d2:DefProp d1) (d2':DefProp d1'), c3 d1 d2 = c3 d1' d2'.
-intros.
-destruct H.
-destruct d2 using DefProp_elim.
-destruct d2' using DefProp_elim.
-reflexivity.
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example*}
-
-
-\Question{And what if I want to prove the following?}
-
-\begin{coq_example*}
-Inductive natProp : nat -> Prop :=
- | p0 : natProp 0
- | pS : forall n:nat, natProp n -> natProp (S n).
-Inductive package : Set :=
- pack : forall n:nat, natProp n -> package.
-Lemma eq_pack :
- forall n n':nat,
- n = n' ->
- forall (np:natProp n) (np':natProp n'), pack n np = pack n' np'.
-\end{coq_example*}
-
-
-
-\begin{coq_eval}
-Abort.
-\end{coq_eval}
-\begin{coq_example*}
-Scheme natProp_elim := Induction for natProp Sort Prop.
-Definition pack_S : package -> package.
-destruct 1.
-apply (pack (S n)).
-apply pS; assumption.
-Defined.
-Lemma eq_pack :
- forall n n':nat,
- n = n' ->
- forall (np:natProp n) (np':natProp n'), pack n np = pack n' np'.
-intros n n' Heq np np'.
-generalize dependent n'.
-induction np using natProp_elim.
-induction np' using natProp_elim; intros; auto.
- discriminate Heq.
-induction np' using natProp_elim; intros; auto.
- discriminate Heq.
-change (pack_S (pack n np) = pack_S (pack n0 np')).
-apply (f_equal (A:=package)).
-apply IHnp.
-auto.
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example*}
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-\section{Publishing tools}
-
-\Question{How can I generate some latex from my development?}
-
-You can use {\tt coqdoc}.
-
-\Question{How can I generate some HTML from my development?}
-
-You can use {\tt coqdoc}.
-
-\Question{How can I generate some dependency graph from my development?}
-
-You can use the tool \verb|coqgraph| developped by Philippe Audebaud in 2002.
-This tool transforms dependancies generated by \verb|coqdep| into 'dot' files which can be visualized using the Graphviz software (http://www.graphviz.org/).
-
-\Question{How can I cite some {\Coq} in my latex document?}
-
-You can use {\tt coq\_tex}.
-
-\Question{How can I cite the {\Coq} reference manual?}
-
-You can use this bibtex entry:
-\begin{verbatim}
-@Manual{Coq:manual,
- title = {The Coq proof assistant reference manual},
- author = {\mbox{The Coq development team}},
- note = {Version 8.3},
- year = {2009},
- url = "http://coq.inria.fr"
-}
-\end{verbatim}
-
-\Question{Where can I publish my developments in {\Coq}?}
-
-You can submit your developments as a user contribution to the {\Coq}
-development team. This ensures its liveness along the evolution and
-possible changes of {\Coq}.
-
-You can also submit your developments to the HELM/MoWGLI repository at
-the University of Bologna (see
-\ahref{http://mowgli.cs.unibo.it}{\url{http://mowgli.cs.unibo.it}}). For
-developments submitted in this database, it is possible to visualize
-the developments in natural language and execute various retrieving
-requests.
-
-\Question{How can I read my proof in natural language?}
-
-You can submit your proof to the HELM/MoWGLI repository and use the
-rendering tool provided by the server (see
-\ahref{http://mowgli.cs.unibo.it}{\url{http://mowgli.cs.unibo.it}}).
-
-\section{\CoqIde}
-
-\Question{What is {\CoqIde}?}
-
-{\CoqIde} is a gtk based GUI for \Coq.
-
-\Question{How to enable Emacs keybindings?}
-
-Depending on your configuration, use either one of these two methods
-
-\begin{itemize}
-
-\item Insert \texttt{gtk-key-theme-name = "Emacs"}
- in your \texttt{.coqide-gtk2rc} file. It may be in the current dir
- or in \verb#$HOME# dir. This is done by default.
-
-\item If in Gnome, run the gnome configuration editor (\texttt{gconf-editor})
-and set key \texttt{gtk-key-theme} to \texttt{Emacs} in the category
-\texttt{desktop/gnome/interface}.
-
-\end{itemize}
-
-
-
-%$ juste pour que la coloration emacs marche
-
-\Question{How to enable antialiased fonts?}
-
- Set the \verb#GDK_USE_XFT# variable to \verb#1#. This is by default
- with \verb#Gtk >= 2.2#. If some of your fonts are not available,
- set \verb#GDK_USE_XFT# to \verb#0#.
-
-\Question{How to use those Forall and Exists pretty symbols?}\label{forallcoqide}
- Thanks to the notation features in \Coq, you just need to insert these
-lines in your {\Coq} buffer:\\
-\begin{tt}
-Notation "$\forall$ x : t, P" := (forall x:t, P) (at level 200, x ident).
-\end{tt}\\
-\begin{tt}
-Notation "$\exists$ x : t, P" := (exists x:t, P) (at level 200, x ident).
-\end{tt}
-
-Copy/Paste of these lines from this file will not work outside of \CoqIde.
-You need to load a file containing these lines or to enter the $\forall$
-using an input method (see \ref{inputmeth}). To try it just use \verb#Require Import utf8# from inside
-\CoqIde.
-To enable these notations automatically start coqide with
-\begin{verbatim}
- coqide -l utf8
-\end{verbatim}
-In the ide subdir of {\Coq} library, you will find a sample utf8.v with some
-pretty simple notations.
-
-\Question{How to define an input method for non ASCII symbols?}\label{inputmeth}
-
-\begin{itemize}
-\item First solution: type \verb#<CONTROL><SHIFT>2200# to enter a forall in the script widow.
- 2200 is the hexadecimal code for forall in unicode charts and is encoded as
- in UTF-8.
- 2203 is for exists. See \ahref{http://www.unicode.org}{\url{http://www.unicode.org}} for more codes.
-\item Second solution: rebind \verb#<AltGr>a# to forall and \verb#<AltGr>e# to exists.
- Under X11, you need to use something like
-\begin{verbatim}
- xmodmap -e "keycode 24 = a A F13 F13"
- xmodmap -e "keycode 26 = e E F14 F14"
-\end{verbatim}
- and then to add
-\begin{verbatim}
- bind "F13" {"insert-at-cursor" ("")}
- bind "F14" {"insert-at-cursor" ("")}
-\end{verbatim}
- to your "binding "text"" section in \verb#.coqiderc-gtk2rc.#
- The strange ("") argument is the UTF-8 encoding for
- 0x2200.
- You can compute these encodings using the lablgtk2 toplevel with
-\begin{verbatim}
-Glib.Utf8.from_unichar 0x2200;;
-\end{verbatim}
- Further symbols can be bound on higher Fxx keys or on even on other keys you
- do not need .
-\end{itemize}
-
-\Question{How to build a custom {\CoqIde} with user ml code?}
- Use
- coqmktop -ide -byte m1.cmo...mi.cmo
- or
- coqmktop -ide -opt m1.cmx...mi.cmx
-
-\Question{How to customize the shortcuts for menus?}
- Two solutions are offered:
-\begin{itemize}
-\item Edit \$HOME/.coqide.keys by hand or
-\item Add "gtk-can-change-accels = 1" in your .coqide-gtk2rc file. Then
- from \CoqIde, you may select a menu entry and press the desired
- shortcut.
-\end{itemize}
-
-\Question{What encoding should I use? What is this $\backslash$x\{iiii\} in my file?}
- The encoding option is related to the way files are saved.
- Keep it as UTF-8 until it becomes important for you to exchange files
- with non UTF-8 aware applications.
- If you choose something else than UTF-8, then missing characters will
- be encoded by $\backslash$x\{....\} or $\backslash$x\{........\}
- where each dot is an hex. digit.
- The number between braces is the hexadecimal UNICODE index for the
- missing character.
-
-\Question{How to get rid of annoying unwanted automatic templates?}
-
-Some users may experiment problems with unwanted automatic
-templates while using Coqide. This is due to a change in the
-modifiers keys available through GTK. The straightest way to get
-rid of the problem is to edit by hand your .coqiderc (either
-\verb|/home/<user>/.coqiderc| under Linux, or \\
-\verb|C:\Documents and Settings\<user>\.coqiderc| under Windows)
- and replace any occurence of \texttt{MOD4} by \texttt{MOD1}.
-
-
-
-\section{Extraction}
-
-\Question{What is program extraction?}
-
-Program extraction consist in generating a program from a constructive proof.
-
-\Question{Which language can I extract to?}
-
-You can extract your programs to Objective Caml and Haskell.
-
-\Question{How can I extract an incomplete proof?}
-
-You can provide programs for your axioms.
-
-
-
-%%%%%%%
-\section{Glossary}
-
-\Question{Can you explain me what an evaluable constant is?}
-
-An evaluable constant is a constant which is unfoldable.
-
-\Question{What is a goal?}
-
-The goal is the statement to be proved.
-
-\Question{What is a meta variable?}
-
-A meta variable in {\Coq} represents a ``hole'', i.e. a part of a proof
-that is still unknown.
-
-\Question{What is Gallina?}
-
-Gallina is the specification language of \Coq. Complete documentation
-of this language can be found in the Reference Manual.
-
-\Question{What is The Vernacular?}
-
-It is the language of commands of Gallina i.e. definitions, lemmas, {\ldots}
-
-
-\Question{What is a dependent type?}
-
-A dependant type is a type which depends on some term. For instance
-``vector of size n'' is a dependant type representing all the vectors
-of size $n$. Its type depends on $n$
-
-\Question{What is a proof by reflection?}
-
-This is a proof generated by some computation which is done using the
-internal reduction of {\Coq} (not using the tactic language of {\Coq}
-(\Ltac) nor the implementation language for \Coq). An example of
-tactic using the reflection mechanism is the {\ring} tactic. The
-reflection method consist in reflecting a subset of {\Coq} language (for
-example the arithmetical expressions) into an object of the {\Coq}
-language itself (in this case an inductive type denoting arithmetical
-expressions). For more information see~\cite{howe,harrison,boutin}
-and the last chapter of the Coq'Art.
-
-\Question{What is intuitionistic logic?}
-
-This is any logic which does not assume that ``A or not A''.
-
-
-\Question{What is proof-irrelevance?}
-
-See question \ref{proof-irrelevance}
-
-
-\Question{What is the difference between opaque and transparent?}{\label{opaque}}
-
-Opaque definitions can not be unfolded but transparent ones can.
-
-
-\section{Troubleshooting}
-
-\Question{What can I do when {\tt Qed.} is slow?}
-
-Sometime you can use the {\abstracttac} tactic, which makes as if you had
-stated some local lemma, this speeds up the typing process.
-
-\Question{Why \texttt{Reset Initial.} does not work when using \texttt{coqc}?}
-
-The initial state corresponds to the state of \texttt{coqtop} when the interactive
-session began. It does not make sense in files to compile.
-
-
-\Question{What can I do if I get ``No more subgoals but non-instantiated existential variables''?}
-
-This means that {\eauto} or {\eapply} didn't instantiate an
-existential variable which eventually got erased by some computation.
-You may backtrack to the faulty occurrence of {\eauto} or {\eapply}
-and give the missing argument an explicit value. Alternatively, you
-can use the commands \texttt{Show Existentials.} and
-\texttt{Existential.} to display and instantiate the remainig
-existential variables.
-
-
-\begin{coq_example}
-Lemma example_show_existentials : forall a b c:nat, a=b -> b=c -> a=c.
-Proof.
-intros.
-eapply trans_equal.
-Show Existentials.
-eassumption.
-assumption.
-Qed.
-\end{coq_example}
-
-
-\Question{What can I do if I get ``Cannot solve a second-order unification problem''?}
-
-You can help {\Coq} using the {\pattern} tactic.
-
-\Question{Why does {\Coq} tell me that \texttt{\{x:A|(P x)\}} is not convertible with \texttt{(sig A P)}?}
-
- This is because \texttt{\{x:A|P x\}} is a notation for
-\texttt{sig (fun x:A => P x)}. Since {\Coq} does not reason up to
-$\eta$-conversion, this is different from \texttt{sig P}.
-
-
-\Question{I copy-paste a term and {\Coq} says it is not convertible
- to the original term. Sometimes it even says the copied term is not
-well-typed.}
-
- This is probably due to invisible implicit information (implicit
-arguments, coercions and Cases annotations) in the printed term, which
-is not re-synthesised from the copied-pasted term in the same way as
-it is in the original term.
-
- Consider for instance {\tt (@eq Type True True)}. This term is
-printed as {\tt True=True} and re-parsed as {\tt (@eq Prop True
-True)}. The two terms are not convertible (hence they fool tactics
-like {\tt pattern}).
-
- There is currently no satisfactory answer to the problem. However,
-the command {\tt Set Printing All} is useful for diagnosing the
-problem.
-
- Due to coercions, one may even face type-checking errors. In some
-rare cases, the criterion to hide coercions is a bit too loose, which
-may result in a typing error message if the parser is not able to find
-again the missing coercion.
-
-
-
-\section{Conclusion and Farewell.}
-\label{ccl}
-
-\Question{What if my question isn't answered here?}
-\label{lastquestion}
-
-Don't panic \verb+:-)+. You can try the {\Coq} manual~\cite{Coq:manual} for a technical
-description of the prover. The Coq'Art~\cite{Coq:coqart} is the first
-book written on {\Coq} and provides a comprehensive review of the
-theorem prover as well as a number of example and exercises. Finally,
-the tutorial~\cite{Coq:Tutorial} provides a smooth introduction to
-theorem proving in \Coq.
-
-
-%%%%%%%
-\newpage
-\nocite{LaTeX:intro}
-\nocite{LaTeX:symb}
-\bibliography{fk}
-
-%%%%%%%
-\typeout{*********************************************}
-\typeout{********* That makes {\thequestion} questions **********}
-\typeout{*********************************************}
-
-\end{document}